FOOD   STUDY 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 
A  FIELD  OF  SUGAR  CAXE 
The  source  of  one  of  our  important  foods 


FOOD   STUDY 

A   TEXTBOOK   IN   HOME   ECONOMICS 
FOR  HIGH   SCHOOLS 


BY 


MABEL  THACHER  WELLMAN 

, » 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  AND  HEAD  OF  DEPARTMENT  OF 
HOME  ECONOMICS  IN  INDIANA  UNIVERSITY 

FORMERLY  INSTRUCTOR  IN  DIETETICS  AND  HOUSEHOLD 
CHEMISTRY  AT  LEWIS  INSTITUTE,  CHICAGO 


BOSTON 

LITTLE,   BEOWN,   AND  COMPANY 
1920 


Copyright,  1917, 
BY  LITTLE,  BROWN,  AND  COMPANY. 


All  rights  reserved 


Co 

MRS.  ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON 

WHOSE    TEACHING    HAS    BEEN    THE 

SOURCE  OF   INSPIRATION 

OF    THIS    BOOK 


43846-1 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

THANKS  are  due  to  John  Wiley  &  Sons  for  the  use  of 
starch  cuts  from  Leach's  "Food  Inspection  and  Analy- 
sis"; to  Ginn  &  Company  for  the  use  of  mold  cuts  from 
Conn's  "Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  in  the  Home"; 
to  the  University  of  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  for  the  use  of  illustrations  of  cuts  of  steak;  to 
Walter  Baker  &  Company  for  permission  to  use  the  copy- 
righted cuts  of  the  coffee  berry  and  cocoa  bean ;  to  Mrs. 
Janet  McKenzie  Hill  for  the  use  of  illustrations  from 
"Cooking  for  Two" ;  to  Miss  Lucy  G.  Allen  for  diagrams 
from  "Table  Service"  ;  to  the  Hoosier  Manufacturing 
Company  for  floor  plans ;  to  the  Walker  &  Pratt  Manu- 
facturing Company  for  diagram  of  a  coal  stove;  and  to 
the  heirs  of  Miss  Fannie  Merritt  Farmer  for  permission 
to  use  important  recipes  from  the  "Boston  Cooking- 
School  Cook  Book." 


FOREWORD  TO  THE  TEACHER 

HOME  ECONOMICS  is  still  so  new  a  study  that  no  apology 
is  necessary  for  placing  another  textbook  in  this  subject 
on  the  market.  Many  of  the  best  books  which  are  now 
available  obviously  are  intended  for  the  benefit  of  the 
teacher  rather  than  for  the  student,  while  others  are 
little  more  than  carefully  selected  collections  of  recipes. 
The  present  work  is  an  attempt  to  present  a  manual  of 
definite  directions  which  will  aid  the  student  in  her  ad- 
venture into  the  subject,  but  it  is  by  no  means  intended 
to  supersede  the  teacher  or  to  furnish  material  which 
can  be  taught  by  one  untrained  in  the  subject. 

As  in  physics  and  chemistry,  there  are  principles  in 
cooking  which  are  worthy  of  consideration,  and,  as  in 
any  science,  they  should  be  taught  from  an  inductive 
standpoint.  But,  equally,  no  attempt  at  a  completely 
inductive  course  should  be  made.  The  accumulated  ex- 
periences of  mankind  can  be  used  with  benefit.  To 
show  a  cake,  for  example,  to  a  student  who  knows  noth- 
ing of  cooking,  and  let  her  guess  the  ingredients,  the 
methods  of  combining  them,  and  the  temperature  used 
in  baking,  and  then  to  let  her  experiment  until  she  pro- 
duced a  perfect  cake,  might  teach  cooking,  but  the  road 
would  be  long  and  arduous.  On  the  other  hand,  here, 
as  in  other  sciences,  sufficient  discovery  to  arouse  interest, 


viii  FOREWORD  TO  THE  TEACHER 

to  enable  the  pupil  to  question  understanding!;^  and  to 
give  control  of  the  situation,  is  of  undoubted  benefit  and 
leads  on  naturally  to  research. 

Where  inductive  courses  have  failed,  the  reason  has 
been  most  often  that  the  preparatory  steps  have  been 
omitted  by  the  teacher,  and  the  student  has  been  set  to 
find  out  something  when  she  has  no  knowledge  of  what 
she  has  set  out  to  find.  Chance  discoveries,  of  course, 
find  their  applications  later  on,  but  this  is  not  education. 
The  student  needs  to  have  clearly  in  mind  the  results 
looked  for,  before  she  begins  an  experiment.  This  by  no 
means  implies  that  the  result  itself  should  be  known,  for 
then  interest  is  dulled.  References  should  be  looked  up 
only  after  the  practical  work,  or  its  chief  value  is  lost. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  economize  on  time,  where  com- 
parative results  are  to  be  obtained,  as  in  making  tea,  the 
experiments  may  be  divided  among  the  class  so  that 
one  student  compares  her  results  with  those  of  her  neigh- 
bors. This  distribution  of  work,  however,  is  not  possible 
when  preparing  dishes  which  call  for  skill  in  handling 
or  involve  some  special  principles  in  combining  or  in 
cooking;  but  there  is  no  reason  why  one  student  may 
not  prepare  bean  soup  while  her  neighbor  makes  potato 
soup.  Such  a  practice  often  helps  to  impress  underlying 
principles.  College  classes  have  been  known  to  finish 
their  course  in  cooking  with  the  idea  that  a  special  recipe 
was  necessary  for  each  kind  of  soup  or  cake,  and  without 
knowledge  of  proportions  which  would  tell  them  when  a 
recipe  was  outside  the  bounds  of  possibility.  This  is 
the  result  of  cooking  entirely  from  recipes.  On  the 
other  hand,  an  error  quite  as  bad  is  made  when  recipes 
are  never  used. 

The  order  of  the  topics  in  this  book  is  not  that  of  the 
conventional  cook  book,  nor  is  it  based  on  the  chief  food 


FOREWORD  TO  THE  TEACHER  ix 

principles,  but  is  a  logical  working  out  of  the  subject  and 
makes  possible  certain  advantages  in  presentation,  as  the 
early  introduction  of  such  subjects  as  meals  and  serving. 
This  gives  opportunity  for  the  economic  study  needed  as 
a  basis  for  household  management  —  all  too  often  omitted 
from  courses  in  home  economics  —  and  also  affords  an 
occasion  for  necessary  repetition  of  work,  if  skill  as  well  as 
knowledge  is  to  be  acquired.  Another  excellent  way  to 
introduce  repetition  is  by  contests,  in  which,  for  example, 
the  students  not  only  try  to  see  who  can  make  the  best 
bread  but  also  are  required  to  judge  the  results  and 
show  why  one  is  more  desirable  than  another.  In  this 
way  they  learn  standards  of  perfection  otherwise  difficult 
to  teach.  Regulation  "score  cards"  may  or  may  not  be 
used  for  such  work. 

The  laboratory  notes  should  show  clearly  the  results 
obtained  in  all  experiments  and  should  also  answer  all 
questions  asked  in  the  directions.  Recipes  may  be 
written  here,  or  better,  kept  in  card  catalog  form.  It  is 
well  to  accustom  the  student  to  the  handling  of  a  cook 
book,  and  familiarity  with  more  than  one  is  surely  de- 
sirable. 

The  divisions  I,  II,  III,  and  the  like  do  not  mean 
divisions  of  single  lessons.  The  experiments  and  the 
cooking  presented  in  each  chapter  can  be  carried  out  in 
a  double  period  of  an  hour  and  a  half.  Following  the 
laboratory  work  of  each  chapter  of  the  text  is  material 
intended  to  be  taken  up  in  subsequent  recitations.  Double 
periods  are  not  needed  for  recitation.  If  the  schedule 
calls  for  them,  part  of  the  time  may  well  be  occupied  in 
writing  up  note  books.  A  double  period  for  laboratory 
work  and  a  single  period  for  recitation  form  a  unit  of 
work  which  may  be  given  once  in  a  week,  or  twice  if 
time  permits. 


X  FOREWORD  TO  THE   TEACHER 

The  questions  at  the  end  of  the  lessons  are  not  in- 
tended to  be  written  up  in  the  laboratory  notes,  as  they 
are  often  much  too  comprehensive.  Neither  are  they 
intended  to  be  exhaustive.  Their  object  is  to  show 
the  student  the  scope  of  the  subject,  to  give  definite 
material  to  look  for  in  the  references,  and  to  start  the 
student  thinking. 

The  laboratory  work  may  be  extended  indefinitely  by 
preparing  under  each  section  other  dishes  which  are 
similar  in  principle.  (See  list  of  supplementary  laboratory 
work.)  For  convenience  in  using  supplies,  other  dishes 
can  be  substituted  for  those  mentioned.  In  jelly-making, 
for  example,  crab  apple  and  grape  are  the  fruits  given, 
one  chosen  as  a  juicy  fruit  requiring  the  addition  of 
no  water,  the  other  needing  water  in  its  preparation; 
any  other  fruits  answering  these  requirements  may  be 
substituted.  Jelly-making,  pickling,  and  preserving  are 
placed  first  in  the  course,  not  because  it  is  the  logical 
order,  but  because  autumn  is  the  best  time  in  the  school 
year  to  obtain  the  necessary  fruits.  An  attempt  has  also 
been  made  to  consider  the  amount  of  skill  required  in 
every  process.  For  this  reason  the  dough  and  batter 
series  has  not  been  introduced  directly  after  the  first 
study  of  starch,  but  has  been  placed  after  the  meat  and 
vegetable  work.  Since  a  laboratory  using  many  ovens 
becomes  exceedingly  warm,  the  roasting  of  meat  and  the 
baking  of  bread,  cake,  and  pies  are  not  left  until  the  end 
of  the  course,  for  the  least  possible  hot  work  is  desirable 
at  the  end  of  the  school  year. 

It  has  not  seemed  desirable  to  explain  such  processes 
as  how  to  break  an  egg,  how  to  beat  eggs,  how  to  "fold" 
in  the  whites,  how  to  use  a  rolling-pin,  and  all  the  rest. 
The  teacher  who  shows  the  process  can  make  it  plainer 
than  any  words  can  do. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

FRUIT 

PAGE 

Coddled  Apples ;  Apple  Sauce ;   class  experiment  (Spoiling 

of  Fruit) ;  lesson  on  Fruit        .        »        .        .        .        .        1 

CHAPTER  II 

CANNING   FRUIT 

Canned  Peaches ;  class  experiment  (Cause  of  Fruit  Spoiling) ; 

lesson  on  Molds         .        ...        *      , .        .        .        7 

CHAPTER  III 

JELLY 

Apple  and  Grape  Jelly ;  Trial  Jelly ;  Experiments  and  Tests 

for  Jellying ;  lesson  on  Principles  of  Jelly-making  .        .      13 


CHAPTER  IV 

JELLY-MAKING 

Repeated  Extractions;  class  experiments  (Food  Preserva- 
tives) ;  class  work  (Cucumber  Pickles)  ;  lesson  on  Yeasts 
and  Bacteria 19 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V 

SWEET  PICKLED  PEACHES 

PA6K 

Class  experiments  (Micro-organisms);  lesson  on  Micro- 
organisms .  . .  .  .  •  .  .  .  .  .  25 

CHAPTER  VI 

USE    OP   WATER   IN    COOKING 

Boiled  Potatoes ;  Mashed  Potatoes ;  class  experiment  (Stages 

of  Boiling  Water)  ;  lesson  on  Potatoes    ....      30 

CHAPTER  VII 

USE    OP   WATER   IN    COOKING 

Boiled  Eggs;  Stuffed  Eggs ;  class  experiments  (Eggs)  ;  lesson 

on  Water 39 

CHAPTER  VIH 

USE    OP    WATER    IN    COOKING 

Poached  Eggs ;  class  experiment  (Solubility  of  Egg  White)  ; 
class  experiment  (Correct  Temperature  for  Poaching 
Eggs)  ;  lesson  on  Eggs 46 

CHAPTER  IX 

USE    OP   WATER   IN   COOKING 

Cereal  Breakfast  Foods ;  class  experiment  (Relation  of  Sur- 
face to  Evaporation) ;  Cereal  with  Fruit ;  class  experi- 
ments (Cereals)  ;  lesson  on  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods  .  51 

CHAPTER  X 

STARCH 

Apple  Tapioca;  Boiled  Rice;  lesson  on  Starch      .        .«        .      56 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  XI 

BICE   AND    INDIAN    PUDDINGS 

PAGE 

Cost  of  Breakfast  Foods;  preparation  of  Rice  Pudding, 
Indian  Pudding,  and  Crisped  Cereals ;  lesson  on  Cellu- 
lose ;  lesson  on  Mineral  and  Organic  Salts  ...  62 

CHAPTER  XII 

REVIEW    LESSON 

Breakfast,  preparation  and  serving;   lesson  on  Setting  the 

Table         .        ...        .        .        .        ...      67 

CHAPTER  XIII 

TEA 

Marshmallow  Wafers ;  individual  experiments  (Green  Tea)  ; 

class  experiments  (Black  Tea)  ;  lesson  on  Tea         .        .      74 

CHAPTER  XIV 

COFFEE 

Cheese  Wafers ;  class  experiments  (Making  Coffee)       .  .     «      79 
CHAPTER  XV 

COCOA   AND    CHOCOLATE 

Oatmeal  Cookies ;  class  experiments  (Making  Cocoa) ;  Pre- 
paring Chocolate;  lesson  on  Cocoa,  Chocolate,  Condi- 
ments and  Flavoring  Extracts  .  .  ...  '.  .  .  83 

CHAPTER  XVI 

FREEZING 

Water  Ices ;  Sherbet ;  class  experiments  (Freezing  Mixtures) ; 
Lemon  Ice ;  class  work  (Lemon  Sherbet)  ;  lesson  on 
Freezing  Mixtures 90 


Xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XVII 

RECEPTION 

PAGE 

Candied   Fruit  Peel;   Marguerites;   Sandwiches;  lesson  on 

Receptions         .        .        ...        .        .        .        .95 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

COMBUSTION    AND    FUELS 

Scalloped  Potatoes ;   class  experiments  (Fuels)  ;    lesson  on 

Combustion  and  Fuels 98 

CHAPTER  XIX 

DRAFTS  AND  THE  COAL  RANGE 

Baked  and  Stuffed  Potatoes ;    class  experiments   (Drafts) ; 

lesson  on  Coal  Stoves 104 

CHAPTER  XX 

FLAME    AND    GAS    STOVES 

Chocolate  Bread  Pudding ;  class  experiments  (Care  of  a  Gas 

Stove) ;  lesson  on  Gas  Stoves ;  How  to  Read  a  Gas  Meter    108 

CHAPTER  XXI 

RADIATION    AND    CONDUCTION    OF    HEAT 

Class  experiments  (Transmission  of  Heat) ;  Scrambled  Eggs 

on  Toast ;  lesson  on  Fireless  Cookers       .        .        .        .     114 

CHAPTER  XXII 

CONVECTION    OF    HEAT 

Class  experiments  (Transmission  of  Heat) ;  Potato  Salad ; 
Broiled  Bacon  ;  lesson  on  Hot-water  Systems ;  lesson  on 
Kitchen  Ware  .  118 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

REVIEW    LESSON 

PAGE 

Second  Breakfast ;  Omelets,  Fried  Mush  and  Syrup ;  lesson 

on  Table  Manners     .        .        •-•       .      -»<•.,..*        .     122 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

MEDIUM   WHITE    SAUCE 

Class  experiments  (Starch)  ;  White  Sauce ;  Creamed  Chipped 

Beef  on  Toast ;  lesson  on  Wheat      .        .        •        •        •    I28 

CHAPTER  XXV 

THICK    WHITE    SAUCE 

Salmon  Croquettes ;  Cheese  Souffle* ;  lesson  on  Bread  Flour  .     132 
CHAPTER  XXVI 

STARCH 

Class  experiment  (Comparison  of  Flour  and  Cornstarch); 
Cornstarch  Mold;  Chocolate  Sauce;  Macaroni  and  To- 
mato Sauce ;  lesson  on  Cornstarch  *  ,  .  135 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

CREAMED    VEGETABLES 

Class  experiments  (Effect  of  Heat  on  Starch) ;  Peas  and  Car- 
rots ;  lesson  on  Canned  Vegetables  .  .  .  .  .  139 

CHAPTER  XXVIH 

THIN    WHITE    SAUCE 

Cream  Soups :  Celery  and  Potato ;  lesson  on  Classification  of 

Vegetables .142 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

SCALLOPED    VEGETABLES 

PAGK 

Class  experiment   (Mineral  Ash   in  Vegetables) ;   Cooking 

Cabbage  or  Onion ;  Cream  Soup ;  lesson  on  Vegetables  .     146 

CHAPTER  XXX 

GREEN    VEGETABLES 

Spinach ;  Lettuce ;  class  experiments  (Freshening  of  Green 
Vegetables)  ;  French  Dressing ;  Sour  Cream  Dressing ; 
lesson  on  the  Amount  of  Food  Necessary  .  .  .  150 

CHAPTER  XXXI 

SWEET-FLAVORED    VEGETABLES 

Squash;    Buttered  Beets;    class  experiment  (Sugar  Test); 

lesson  on  Cane  and  Beet  Sugar 158 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

CANDIES 

Class  experiment  (Stages  in  Sugar  Cooking) ;  class  experi- 
ment (Crystallization  of  Sugar)  ;  lesson  on  Carbohydrates  162 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

MEAT    CAKES    WITH    CREAMED    TTJRNIPS 

Class  experiment  (Tests  with  Meat) ;  class  experiment 
(Structure  of  Meat) ;  Broiled  Meat  Cakes ;  lesson  on 
Meat .  168 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 

TENDER   MEAT 

Roast  Beef ;  Broiled  Beefsteak  and  Corn  Pudding ;  class  ex- 
periment (Cooking  Meat)  ;  lesson  on  Cuts  of  Beef  and 
Principles  of  Cooking  Meat  *  ,  *  ..  ,.  .  .  175 


CONTENTS  XV11 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

BEEF    STEW 

PAGE 

Class  experiments  (Cooking  Meat) ;  Beef  Stew  and  Dump- 
lings ;  class  experiment  (Keeping  Meat  Tender)  ;  lesson 
on  Meat  Inspection  .  .  .  .  ..  .  .  .  179 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 

LEFT-OVERS 

Southern  Spoon  Bread ;  lesson  on  Proteins    .        .        •        .    183 
CHAPTER  XXXVII 

MEAT    SOUPS 

Class  experiment  (Soluble  Contents  of  Meat) ;  class  experi- 
ment (Use  of  Bones  in  Soup)  ;  lesson  on  Meat  Soups  .  188 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

GELATINE    DISHES 

Lemon  Jelly;  Snow  Pudding;  Bavarian  Cream ;  class  experi- 
ments (Gelatine)  ;  lesson  on  Gelatine  .  .  .  .  191 

CHAPTER  XXXIX 

REVIEW    LESSON 

Dinner;  Split-Pea  Soup ;  Spanish  Cream ;  lesson  on  Styles  of 

Serving      .        .        .       ^        .        ,        „        ...     194 

CHAPTER  XL 

POULTRY 

Roast  Chicken ;  Fried  Chicken ;  class  work  (Weighing,  Dress- 
ing, Trussing,  Roasting,  and  Frying  Chicken)  ;  lessons 
on  Poultry  and  the  Digestibility  of  Meat  *  .  .  198 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XLI 

FISH 

P4M 

Baked  Fish  ;  Boiled  Fish  with  Egg  Sauce ;  Scalloped  Fish ; 
Stewed  Tomato ;  lesson  on  Composition  and  Digestibility 
of  Fish 202 

CHAPTER  XLII 

OYSTER    STEW FISH    CHOWDER 

Class  experiment  (Cooking  Oysters)  ;  Preparation  of  Oyster 

Stew  and  Fish  Chowder ;  lesson  on  Oysters     .        .        .    207 

CHAPTER  XLIII 

REVIEW    LESSON 

Dinner;    Tomato   Soup;    Jellied   Prunes;    lesson   on    The 

Dining  Room 213 

CHAPTER  XLIV 

POP-OVERS 

Making  Pop-overs;  class  experiments  (Measuring  Sifted 
Flour ;  White  of  Egg  in  Hot  Fat)  ;  lesson  on  Flour 
Mixtures 216 

CHAPTER  XLV 

APPLE    FRITTERS 

Class  experiment  (Principle  of  Leavening)  ;  Apple  Fritters ; 

lesson  on  Leavening 220 

CHAPTER  XLVI 

SOUR    MILK    GRLDDLECAKES 

Class  experiment  (Soda  as  a  Leavening  Agent) ;  Sour  Milk 

Griddlecakes ;  lesson  on  Soda  .        •       v       •        •    222 


CONTENTS  XIX 

CHAPTER  XLVH 

LEAVENING 

PAGE 

Sweet  Milk  Griddlecakes ;   Sponge  Cake;  class  experiment 

(Baking  Powder)  ;  lesson  on  Baking  Powders         .        .    226 

CHAPTER  XLVIII 

MUFFINS 

Making  Muffins ;  class  experiment  (Weight  of  Flours)  ;  les- 
son on  Kinds  of  Flour       .        '.        »        .         .        .        .     230 

CHAPTER  XLIX 

CAKE 

Making  a  Plain  Cake;  Frosting;  class  experiment  (Bread 

Flour  and  Pastry  Flour)  ;  lesson  on  Cake-making  .        .    233 

CHAPTER  L 

BAKING-POWDER   BISCUITS 

Biscuits;  Sour  Milk  Gingerbread;  lesson  on  Baking-powder 

Biscuits      .        ;        .        .        .        .....        .    237 

CHAPTER  LI 

SUGAR   COOKIES 

Class  experiments  (Yeast)  ;  Sugar  Cookies ;  Ginger  Snaps ; 

lesson  on  Yeast          .        .        . .  -•  *        *        .        .        .    240 

CHAPTER  LH 

BREAD-MAKING 

Mixing  and  Baking  Bread ;  class  work  (Kneading) ;  lesson 

on  Bread  and  Bread-mixing     ......    244 


XX  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  LIH 

BREAD 

PA09 

Rolls;    Graham  and  Oatmeal   Bread;   class  work  (Parker 

House  Rolls)  ;  lesson  on  Bread  and  Bread-baking  .        .    249 

CHAPTER  LTV 

PIES 

Class  experiments  (Proportions  of  Fat  and  Liquid  to  Flour)  ; 

Pie  Crust  ;  Apple  Pie  ;  lesson  on  Pastry  ....    254 

CHAPTER  LV 

DOUGHNUTS 

Class  experiments  (Fats)  ;  Doughnuts  ;  lesson  on  Fats          .    257 
CHAPTER  LVI 

MILK    FATS 

Butter;  Whipped  Cream;  Philadelphia  Ice  Cream;  class  ex- 

periments (Cream  and  Butter)  ;  lesson  on  Butter  .        .    262 

CHAPTER  LVII 

CUSTABDS 

Custard  Ice  Cream  ;  Boiled  Custard  ;  Baked  Custard  ;  Frozen 

Custard;  lesson  on  Milk  .        .        .        ....    267 


CHAPTER 

ACIDS    AND    MILK 

Cream  of  Tomato  Soup  ;  Lemon  Milk  Sherbet  ;  class  experi- 

ments (Acids  and  Milk)  ;  lesson  on  Milk  (Continued)    .    272 


CONTENTS  Xxi 

CHAPTER  LIX 

CUBD    OF    MILK 

PAQB 

Cottage  Cheese;  Junket  Custard;  class  experiments  (Effect 

of  Heat  on  Sour  Milk)  ;  lesson  on  Food  for  Children      .    276 

CHAPTER  LX 

CHEESE 

Cheese  Pudding;  Welsh  Rabbit;  class  experiments  (Effect 

of  Extreme  Heat  on  Cheese)  ;  lesson  on  Cheese      .        .    281 

CHAPTER  LXI 

SALADS 

Class  experiments  (Emulsions)  ;  Salad  Dressings ;  lesson  on 

Arrangements  in  the  Kitchen  and  Dining  Room     .        .    285 

CHAPTER  LXII 

LUNCHEON 

Prepare  and  Serve  a  Luncheon ;  lesson  on  Menu-making       .    292 

APPENDIX 

Food  Requirements ;  Tables  of  Height  and  Weight ;  Table 

of  Fuel  Values  .        .        ,        7        .        .        .        .        .297 

SUPPLEMENTARY   LABORATORY   LESSONS     .        .    313 
INDEX  315 


INTRODUCTION 

PLANNING  meals  is  often  thought  a  very  simple  piece 
of  work,  and  perhaps  it  is  comparatively  so,  if  it  is  not 
necessary  to  consider  either  time  or  money.  But  people 
are  beginning  to  believe  that  it  is  really  their  duty  to 
consider  both,  and  many  of  us  have  to,  whether  we 
would  or  no. 

Think,  then,  of  all  that  it  is  necessary  to  know  in  order 
to  do  this  work  well.  First,  the  housewife  must  know 
what  the  income  is  and  how  it  is  to  be  divided.  Only 
thus  can  she  determine  what  the  family  can  afford  to 
spend  for  food. 

Next,  she  must  know,  in  order  to  decide  what  is  to  be 
served  for  dinner,  what  is  in  the  market,  and  a  great  deal 
about  qualities  and  prices.  In  selecting  meats,  it  is 
necessary  not  only  to  be  able  to  tell  whether  a  given 
piece  is  good,  but  to  know  what  cuts  are  appropriate  for 
different  uses.  In  choosing  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables, 
a  knowledge  of  what  is  in  season  is  essential  for  wise 
buying,  since  out  of  season  they  may  be  poor  and 
yet  command  even  higher  prices  than  good  ones  when 
these  are  plentiful.  Some  knowledge  of  brands  of  canned 
and  package  goods  is  useful,  but  will  probably  have  to 
be  acquired  locally.  Even  with  all  this  information,  a 
knowledge  of  the  part  played  by  these  foods  in  nourish- 
ing the  body,  and  of  their  relative  value  from  this  point 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

of  view,  should  govern  the  actual  purchases ;  and,  curi- 
ously enough,  these  considerations  have  no  connection 
with  the  price. 

It  is  surely  necessary  to  know  how  to  prepare  and  serve 
food  in  an  appetizing  manner.  At  first  thought  a  knowl- 
edge of  cooking  might  seem  necessary  for  the  planner  only 
when  she  is  also  the  cook;  but  without  such  knowledge 
how  is  the  manager  to  look  out  for  the  use  of  left-overs, 
the  saving  of  fuel,  the  adjustment  of  plans  to  oven  space, 
and  above  all,  the  amount  of  work  required  ?  One  meal 
which  seems  very  much  like  another  may  involve  three 
times  as  much  work  in  preparation,  and  the  real  cost  of 
food  is  not  merely  the  price  paid  for  it  in  the  store,  but 
also  the  cost  of  the  labor  required  to  prepare  it,  and  of 
the  fuel  to  cook  it. 

From  such  consideration,  it  is  evident  that  the  planning 
of  meals  requires  broad  knowledge,  and  it  is  easy  to  see 
why  food  study  is  taking  such  a  prominent  place  in  school 
work,  and  why  it  involves  so  much  more  than  the  art  of 
cookery. 


FOOD   STUDY 


FRUIT 

CODDLED  APPLES 
APPLE  SAUCE 

A.   Class  Experiment.     THE  SPOILING  OF  FRUITS. 

Put  three  test  tubes,  with  corks  to  fit,  in  a  pan  of  eold 
water  and  heat  slowly  to  boiling.  Empty  the  tubes  and 
half  fill  with  uncooked  fruit  cut  in  small  pieces. 

1.  Fill  up  the  first  tube  with  cold  water,  cork,  and  seal 
with  paraffin  or  wax. 

2.  Cover  fruit  in  the  second  tube  with  water  and  boil 
for  three  minutes.     Fill  up  with  boiling  water ;  cork 
and  seal. 

3.  Repeat  (2),  but  do  not  cork  the  tube. 

4.  Take  a  tube  which  has  not  been  boiled.     Cook  a 
little  fruit  separately  and,  when  it  is  cooled,  put  it 
into  the  tube.    Add  enough  of  the  fruit  and  juice  to 
fill  it ;  cork  and  seal. 

Note  results  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  and  forty-eight 
hours,  and  after  several  days.  Under  which  conditions 
does  the  fruit  keep  ? 

1 


,,J«    ,Si    .-,?*«. 


B.  KEEPING  FRUIT  FROM  BREAKING  WHILE  COOKING. 

1.  Pare  a  peach.     Cook  half  of  it  in  half  a  cu£  of  water. 
When  it  is  tender,  add  two  tablespoons  of  sugar. 

2.  Make  a  syrup  of  half  a  cup  of  water  and  two  table- 
spoons of  sugar,  and  cook  the  other  half  of  the  peach 
in  it. 

Compare  the  results. 

C.  Prepare  coddled  apples  and  apple  sauce,  using  one 
apple. 

CODDLED  APPLES. 

The  apple  may  be  washed  and  pared,  and  cooked  whole 
or  quartered  and  cored ;  but  th'e  whole  apple  or  the  piece, 
whichever  is  used,  should  keep  its  shape.  Therefore  cook 
gently.  Use  one-third  as  much  sugar  as  water  for  the 
small  quantity.  When  shall  the  sugar  be  added?  A  bit 
of  stick  cinnamon  may  be  cooked  with  the  apple. 

APPLE  SAUCE. 

Wash,  pare,  core,  and  cut  up  an  apple.  Use  about  one- 
third  of  a  cup  of  water  to  an  apple,  and  one-third  as  much 
sugar  as  water.  Here  the  apple  should  not  keep  its  shape. 
When  shall  the  sugar  be  added?  One-half  teaspoon  of 
lemon  or  nutmeg  or  cinnamon  may  be  added. 

FRUIT 

The  botanist  defines  fruit  as  the  seed-bearing  parts  of  a 
plant.  However,  we  commonly  call  some  of  the  fruits 
vegetables;  as,  for  example,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  and 
squash.  Then  there  are  a  few  vegetables,  such  as  rhu- 
barb, which  we  use  and  think  of  as  fruit.  Only  a  few  years 
ago  it  was  hard  to  obtain  fresh  fruits  in  winter.  Bananas 
could  be  obtained  only  in  the  larger  cities,  and  oranges 


FRUIT 


US  Deportment  of  Agriculture 


b  Deportment  or  Agncutti 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A  C.True.  Director 


R-epared  by 

C.FLANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutntwn  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

OfflD      ^^      &%x®      ^^      nrrrm        B  /«ei  value 

Fat  Carbohydrate,         A*  Water 


APPLE 

EOBCE  PORTKJM 


DRIED  FIG 

eaei£  PORTION 


COMPOSITION  OP  FRUITS 


4  FOOD  STUDY 

and  lemons  were  very  expensive.  Now  conditions  have 
changed.  Transportation  is  so  much  more  rapid  that  with 
the  development  of  refrigeration  we  can  have  fruit 
shipped  from  a  distance  and  so  are  enabled  to  have  fresh 
fruit  all  the  year  round. 

Fruit  is  sometimes  classified  from  a  nutritive  standpoint, 
as  flavor  fruit  and  food  fruit.  Some  fruit  contains  so  much 
water  that  there  is  comparatively  little  nourishment  to  be 
had  from  it.  Watermelons  and  strawberries,  for  exam- 
ple, contain  more  than  ninety  per  cent  water.  But 
nearly  all  fruit  has  real  food  value.  Many  of  the  fruits 
which  we  think  of  as  flavor  fruits  contain  considerable 
nutrition.  A  large-sized  orange  will  furnish  as  much 
nourishment  as  an  egg,  or  as  a  banana,  or  as  two 
apples,  mainly  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  sugar 
present. 

The  flavor  of  different  fruits  is  due  to  sugars,  acids, 
and  "ethereal"  bodies.  These  ethereal  bodies,  or  volatile 
oils,  as  they  are  called,  are  present  in  such  small  quantities 
that  they  are  sometimes  impossible  to  detect  chemically, 
but  it  is  undoubtedly  due  to  their  presence  that  different 
fruits  have  distinctive  flavors.  The  acids  present  are 
known  as  organic  acids.  In  fruits  these  are  such  acids  as 
malic,  tartaric,  and  citric.  Some  of  these  are  burned  in 
the  body,  just  as  other  food  is,  and  form  carbon  dioxide 
and  water.  They  do  not  have  to  be  excreted  as  do  the 
mineral  acids,  and  so,  in  the  body,  we  need  hardly  con- 
sider them  as  acids  at  all. 

The  salts  which  are  present  in  fruits  are  valuable.  We 
count  the  fruits,  then,  as  foods  which  furnish  alkaline 
elements,  and  these  help  in  keeping  the  blood  in  proper 
condition. 

Dried  fruits  are,  of  course,  more  nutritious,  pound  for 
pound,  than  fresh  fruits.  A  pound  of  fresh  fruit  will  give 


FRUIT  5 

about  six  ounces  when  dried.  A  pound  of  dried  fruit,  then, 
will  be  nearly  three  times  as  nutritious  as  a  pound  of  fresh 
fruit.  We  must  take  facts  like  these  into  account  when 
we  consider  whether  dried  or  fresh  fruit  is  more  expensive. 
We  pay  more  for  a  pound  of  raisins  than  for  a  pound  of 
grapes,  but  since  the  raisins  contain  so  much  less  water  we 
really  are  paying  less  for  the  amount  of  food  material  to  be 
obtained  from  them. 

Fruits  are  particularly  desirable  in  the  diet  because  of 
their  flavor.  They  may  increase  greatly  the  palatability 
of  an  otherwise  somewhat  tasteless  meal.  Jam  on  our 
bread  appeals  to  all  of  us.  This  increased  palatability 
probably  means  increased  digestibility,  so  that,  for  this 
reason  alone,  we  should  feel  justified  in  including  fruit 
in  the  diet.  However,  the  salts  and  acids  present  are 
so  important  that  we  need  fruits  for  this  reason  also, 
even  if  their  palatability  does  not  tempt  us.  The  salts 
and  acids  in  some  fruits  have  a  laxative  effect.  Prunes 
and  figs  are  examples  of  this  class.  Blackberries  and 
peaches  are  not  laxative.  Most  other  fruits  rank  be- 
tween these  two  groups. 

The  amount  of  fiber  present  in  fruits  is  small  compared 
with  the  amount  in  vegetables,  but  there  is  enough  to 
make  some  varieties  distinctly  more  easily  digestible  if 
cooked.  Cooking  softens  the  fruit.  Fruit  is  also  cooked 
to  preserve  it.  Cooked,  dried,  and  preserved  fruits  have 
all  the  advantages  in  the  diet  of  fresh  fruits. 

Among  the  fruits  considered  the  most  digestible  are 
grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  cooked  apples,  figs,  peaches, 
strawberries,  and  raspberries.  Some  people,  however, 
cannot  eat  strawberries.  Only  a  little  less  digestible  are 
raw  apples,  prunes,  pears,  apricots,  bananas,  and  fresh 
currants.  Bananas  contain  a  good  deal  of  starch  if  they 
are  unripe,  and  so  in  this  condition  are  not  very  digestible 


6  FOOD  STUDY 

unless  cooked.  When  they  are  kept  until  the  skins  are 
dark,  the  starch  is  largely  changed  into  sugar  and  the  fruit 
is  more  digestible.  The  "  strings",  sometimes  left  on  the 
banana  when  it  is  peeled,  are  indigestible.  As  a  whole, 
fruits  are  digestible,  although  some  people  have  idiosyn- 
crasies which  make  a  particular  fruit  disagree  with  them. 
Over-ripe  or  green  fruit  is,  of  course,  harmful. 

Since  much  of  our  fruit  is  eaten  raw,  fruit  should  be 
kept  as  clean  as  possible  while  it  is  marketed.  All  fruits 
should  be  washed  before  being  eaten,  even  fruits  like 
bananas  and  oranges,  the  skins  of  which  we  do  not  eat, 
because  we  are  apt  to  handle  first  the  skin  and  then  the 
fruit.  Such  fruits  as  apples  and  oranges  may  be  washed 
and  rubbed  with  a  cloth  to  clean  them.  Fruits  that  have 
sticky  surfaces,  especially  if  these  have  dried,  are  harder  to 
clean  and  need  to  be  washed  in  two  or  three  waters.  It 
is  better  to  select  packages  of  dates  or  figs  which  are  pro- 
tected from  the  dust,  even  if  they  cost  slightly  more,  than 
to  buy  those  that  are  exposed  to  dirt  and  flies. 

Fruit,  then,  should  not  be  considered  merely  as  a 
luxury ;  and  some  fruit  should  be  included  in  every  diet. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  count  the  pennies,  choose  the  cheaper 
varieties,  which,  fortunately,  are  as  good  for  us  as  the  more 
expensive. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  293.    "Use  of 

Fruit  as  Food." 
Year  Book  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Separate  610.     "Raisins, 

Figs,  and  Other  Dried  Fruits  and  Their  Use." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  fruit  as  food  ? 

2.  Are  these  values  retained  in  coeked  and  preserved  fruits? 

3.  Why  is  it  better  to  use  a  silver  knife  in  preparing  fruit? 


CANNING  FRUIT  7 

4.  Make  a  list  of  dried  fruits  in  common  use  and  their  cost  per 
pound. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  common  fresh  fruits,  giving  then*  seasons  and 
usual  cost  when  in  season. 

II 

CANNING   FRUIT 

CANNED  PEACHES 

A.  Class  Experiment.  ONE  CAUSE  OF  FRUIT  SPOILING. 
Take  a  piece  of  bread,  moisten  it  with  water,  and  leave 

it  exposed  upon  a  plate  during  the  lesson.  Then  cover 
with  a  saucer ;  leave  for  two  days.  If  possible,  examine 
under  a  miscroscope. 

B.  To  CAN  A  JAR  OF  PEACHES. 

In  canning  fruit,  use  a  fourth  to  a  third  of  the  weight  of 
the  fruit  in  sugar  and  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  cups  of 
water  for  each  pound  of  sugar.  Make  a  syrup  by  boiling 
the  sugar  and  water  together  for  three  to  five  minutes. 
Scald  the  peaches  by  dipping  in  boiling  water  long  enough 
to  loosen  the  skin;  peel,  cut  in  halves,  and  remove  the 
stones.  Then,  cook  the  fruit  in  the  syrup.  Often,  only 
part  of  the  fruit  is  cooked  at  a  time,  so  that  there  need  not 
be  an  excess  of  the  syrup.  While  the  peaches  are  cooking, 
sterilize  a  jar  and  cover,  as  the  test  tubes  were  sterilized 
in  the  last  lesson.  When  the  peaches  are  done,  place  the 
jar  either  in  hot  water  or  on  a  cloth  wrung  out  of  hot  water. 
Fill  the  jar  with  fruit  and  pour  in  syrup  until  it  overflows. 
If  there  is  not  enough  syrup,  add  boiling  water.  As 
quickly  as  possible,  put  on  a  rubber  and  screw  on  the 
cover.  When  the  jar  is  cold,  screw  the  cover  as  tight  as 
possible,  being  sure  that  it  is  air  tight. 


8  FOOD  STUDY 

C.    ANOTHER  METHOD  OF  CANNING. 

Fill  a  jar  with  peaches,  cut  in  half  and  stoned,  within 
one  inch  of  the  top.  Make  a  syrup  and  pour  over  the 
fruit.  Adjust  the  rubber,  screw  cover  on  lightly  or  adjust 
top  without  clamping,  and  place  the  jar  in  a  moderate 
oven  or  in  a  steamer.  Cook  till  the  fruit  appears  clear  and 
waxy.  Then  remove  from  the  oven  and  tighten  the  cover. 

Compare  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  two 
methods  of  canning. 

MOLDS 
(ONE  CAUSE  OF  THE  SPOILING  OF  FOOD) 

Molds  are  so  well  known  to  everyone  that  it  is  surprising 
to  learn  that  there  is  no  such  botanical  classification.  All 
plants  that  do  not  contain  chlorophyll,  the  coloring  matter 
which  makes  an  ordinary  plant  green,  are  called  colorless 
plants  or  fungi.  The  fungi  include  mushrooms  and  toad- 
stools, but  of  more  interest  to  the  housekeeper  are  molds, 
yeasts,  and  bacteria.  All  these  are  plants  which  feed  on 
organic  food  and  so  may  be  found  living  on  any  of  our 
foods  that  are  not  properly  taken  care  of. 

While  nearly  everyone  recognizes  molds  at  sight,  few 
have  looked  at  them  closely  enough  to  realize  what  really 
beautiful  plants  they  are.  When  they  begin  growing, 
they  appear  at  first  as  soft,  fluffy  masses  which  are  made 
up  of  a  tangle  of  much-branched  threads.  Each  thread, 
called  a  mycelium,  looks  white  as  it  is  seen  ordinarily $. 
but  appears  nearly  colorless  under  a  microscope.  When 
the  mold  is  older,  perhaps  after  two  days,  it  may  show  a 
color,  blue,  green,  brown,  black,  red,  or  pink,  each  color 
marking  a  different  variety  of  mold.  The  color  is  due  to 
the  so-called  spores,  which  are  reproductive  bodies  and 
which,  if  they  contained  nutritive  material,  would  be  seeds. 


MOLDS 


9 


Each  different  species  of  mold  has  a  different  way  of  form- 
ing spores. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  household  mold,  one  that  is 
almost  always  found  on  moldy  bread,  is  penicillium.  This 
is  a  blue  mold ;  that  is,  at  the  time  of  spore  formation,  it 
becomes  blue,  or 
bluish-green.  This 
color  is  due  to  the 
color  of  the  spores 
themselves.  When 
the  mold  is  a  day 
or  two  old,  the  my- 
celium sends  up  ver- 
tical threads  which 
soon  divide  into 
many  little 
branches.  Then, 
each  branch  begins 
to  divide  by  ring- 
like  constrictions  as 
if  it  were  trying  to 
make  beads  of  itself, 
until,  finally,  the 
branch  is  nothing 
more  than  a  string 
of  little  round  balls, 
each  of  which  is  a 
spore.  These  spores 

are  so  light  that  a  breath  of  wind  blows  them  away, 
and  they  float  off  in  the  air  in  search  of  new  food 
material. 

Mucor,  another  mold  commonly  found  on  bread,  is 
coarser  than  penicillium,  so  that  the  threads  are  seen  more 
easily.  When  it  is  ready  to  form  spores,  the  vertical 


From  Conn's  "  Bacteria,  Yeasta, 
and  Molds  In  the  Home." 

PENICILLIUM,  COMMON  MOLD,  AS  SEEN 
UNDER  THE  MlCEOSCOPE 


10 


FOOD  STUDY 


threads,  instead  of  branching,  form  on  their  ends  small 
round  knobs  or  sacs,  and  inside  these  balls  are  formed 
thousands  of  spores,  which,  when  the  sac  bursts,  are  sown 
broadcast.  These  knobs  on  the  mold  look  like  small 
black  specks.  Another  mold,  aspergillus,  instead  of  form- 
ing the  spores  inside  the  sac,  forms  them  as  beads  on  the 
outside. 

During  the  process  of 
growth,  all  these  molds 
may  send  their  branch- 
ing threads  deep  down 
into  the  food  on  which 
they  are  growing  so  that 
more  than  the  surface 


Spores  in  an 
older  colony 


From  Conn's  "  Bacteria,  Yeaats,  and  Molds  In  the  Home." 


SPORES  OP  PENICILLIUM 
SPROUTING 


GROWTH  FROM  Two  SPORES, 
Two  DAYS  LATER 


may  be  affected.  As  a  result  of  their  .growth,  they  soon 
change  not  only  the  appearance  of  the  food,  but  the  flavor 
and  odor  as  well.  If  the  mold  is  allowed  to  go  on  growing, 
the  food  may  be  entirely  spoiled.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
molds  produce  delicious  flavors,  and  many  of  the  distinc- 
tive flavors  of  our  different  cheeses  are  produced  in  this 
way.  Fruits  are  particularly  subject  to  decay  as  a  result 
of  mold  action.  If  the  skin  of  fruit  is  broken,  the  molds 


MOLDS 


11 


have  an  especially  good  chance  to  get  at  the  food  material 
inside  and  begin  the  process  of  decay. 

A  tempera- 
ture as  hot  as 
boiling,  or  even 
a  little  lower, 
will  soon  kill  a 
plant,  and 
molds  are  no  ex- 
ception to  this 
rule.  When 
fruit  is  canned, 
then,  it  is  boiled 
not  so  much  to 

rnnk     thp    fruit  From  Conn's  "  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home." 

MUCOR,    ANOTHER    MOLD   FOUND    ON   BREAD 

as    to    be    sure 

that  it  contains  no  live  spores;   and  then  it  must  be 

put  away  air  tight  so  that  no  new  spores  can  blow  in. 


Spores 

.  •$  V    'J-    '.' 

From  Conn's  "  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  In  the  Home." 
ASPERGILLUS,    SHOWING   MYCELIUM   AND  SPORE    CLUSTERS 


12  FOOD  STUDY 

This  is  one  of  the  things  accomplished  in  canning,  al- 
though the  plants  to  be  guarded  against  may  be  bacteria 
and  yeasts  as  well  as  molds. 

REFERENCES 

CONN.     "Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home."    Section  I, 

Molds. 
Cornell  Reading  Course  for  the  Farm  Home.     "The  Preservation  of 

Food  in  the  Home,"  Part  I. 

U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  426.  "Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm." 
U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  359.  "Canning  Vegetables  in  the 

Home." 
U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  203.     "Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and 

Jellies." 
Ohio  State  University  Extension  Bulletin,  Vol.  VI,  Supplement  2, 

No.  2.     "The  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  After  sterilizing,  why  must  the  fruit  be  kept  covered  and  air 
tight? 

2.  After  a  jar  is  sterilized  why  should  it  not  be  wiped  out  with  the 
dish  cloth  ?    Why  must  care  be  taken  not  to  touch  the  inside  of  the 
jar  with  the  fingers? 

3.  Why  is  the  rubber  dipped  in  boiling  water,  and  why  is  it  not 
boiled  with  the  jar  and  cover  ? 

4.  How  can  the  jar  be  tested  before  using  ?    If  leakage  is  due  to  a 
poorly  made  jar  and  not  to  a  poor  rubber,  what  uses  may  be  made  of 
the  jar  ? 

5.  Describe  the  different  methods  of  canning. 

6.  How  can  a  jar  that  sticks  be  opened  ? 

7.  What  different  styles  of  cans  are  commonly  used  ?    Discuss  the 
advantages  of  each  kind. 


JELLY  13 

III 

JELLY 
APPLE  AND  GRAPE  JELLY 

A.    TRIAL  JELLY. 

Place  in  saucepans  one-half  cup  of  crab  apples  and  one- 
half  cup  of  pears  or  peaches,  cutting  them  into  pieces. 
Just  cover  with  water,  later  adding  more  if  necessary. 
Cover  and  boil,  until  fruit  is  soft  and  will  mash  easily. 
Make  a  jelly  bag  out  of  double  cheesecloth  by  folding  and 
sewing  it  in  the  shape  of  a  cornucopia;  and,  when  the 
fruit  is  done,  allow  it  to  drip  through  the  bag,  at  first 
without  squeezing.  Examine  juice,  then  squeeze  the 
remainder  through  and  note  the  difference. 

1 .  Place  in  glass  cups  one  teaspoon  of  each  juice  obtained, 
and  add  an  equal  amount  of  alcohol.     Let  it  stand 
five  minutes.    Observe    the  pectin,  the    substance 
which  furnishes  the  thickening  for  jelly.     Compare 
the  amounts  found. 

2.  Now  try  to  make  jelly  out  of  the  rest  of  the  two  ex- 
tracts by  adding  to  each  an  amount  of  sugar  equal  to 
three-fourths  of  the  amount  of  the  juice,  and  boiling 
until  it  is  determined  whether  the  mixture  will  "jell." 

Tests  for  jellying  : 

Place  a  few  drops  of  jelly  on  a  cold  plate  and  put  in  a 
cold  place.  When  it  is  done  the  drops  should  harden  over 
the  surface  and  wrinkle  when  scraped  with  a  knife  or 
spoon.  While  making  the  test,  remove  the  jelly  from  stove 
to  prevent  over-cooking. 

Perhaps  the  best,  because  the  quickest,  test  is  to  allow 
a  little  of  the  juice  to  drop  from  the  spoon.  When  the 
mixture  is  done,  these  drops  should  jelly  and  break  off. 


14 


FOOD  STUDY 


US  Department  of  Agriculture 

Offie.  of  Etpermnt  Stabm 

AC  True.  Doctor 


R-epored  by 

CFLANGWORTHY 

fcpert  n  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

nilill          £883  KEgaa          K^?3  Illlllll          BSBB   Fuel  Vqlue 


W. 


GRAPE  JUICE 

UNfERMENTED 


CANNED 
FRUIT 

Water:  77  2 


COMPOSITION  OP  FRUITS  AND  FRUIT  PRODUCTS 


PRINCIPLES  OF  JELLY-MAKING  15 

B.    To  MAKE  JELLY. 

Make  grape  jelly,  using  one  cup  of  material.  The 
grapes  should  be  picked  over  and  washed  before  being  put 
into  the  saucepan.  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  more  water. 
After  the  sugar  is  added  to  the  juice,  remove  any  scum  that 
forms.  Sterilize  the  jelly  glasses  before  filling.  When 
the  jelly  has  hardened,  cover  with  melted  paraffin. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  JELLY-MAKING 

Because  fruit  juices  differ  so  much  in  their  composition, 
it  is  impossible  to  give  general  directions  sufficiently  exact 
always  to  insure  a  perfect  jelly.  In  fact,  perfect  jelly  is 
rather  seldom  made.  To  be  ideal  it  should  not  only  be 
beautifully  colored  and  transparent,  but  so  tender  that  it 
cuts  easily,  and  firm  enough  to  keep  its  shape,  but  not  so 
firm  that  it  does  not  quiver. 

In  order  to  make  jelly,  fruit  juices  must  contain  two 
substances,  acid  and  pectin,  and  these  should  be  present  in 
proper  proportion.  When  fruit  is  cooked,  pectin  is  formed 
by  the  action  of  water  and  heat  on  a  substance  called 
pectose  which  is  present  in  the  raw  fruit.  This  pectose  is 
closely  related  to  cellulose  1  and  probably  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  it  in  the  cell  walls  of  the  fruit.  It  is  absolutely 
unlike  cellulose,  however,  in  its  property  of  being  affected 
by  boiling  water.  The  pectin  which  is  obtained  from  the 
pectose  is  the  substance  which  gives  texture  to  our  jellies. 
It  is  possible  to  make  jelly  by  great  concentration  without 
the  addition  of  any  sugar  at  all  to  the  fruit  juice,  but  the 
jelly  that  is  formed  is  tough  and  gummy  and  not  palatable, 
as  well  as  being  much  less  in  amount  than  is  produced 
ordinarily.  The  addition  of  sugar  in  the  presence  of  the 

1  Cellulose  is  the  chief  substance  of  which  the  cell-walls  of 
plants  are  composed. 


16  FOOD  STUDY 

right  amount  of  acid  seems  to  precipitate  the  pectin  and 
make  the  jelly  set. 

Not  only  does  one  fruit  differ  from  another  in  the  amount 
of  these  two  substances  which  it  contains,  but  different 
lots  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  may  differ  materially.  As 
fruit  ripens  it  contains  less  acid,  and  less  pectin  as  well, 
and  over-ripe  fruit  may  fail  to  jelly  at  all.  Fruit  that  is 
not  fully  ripe  is  much  safer  to  use  than  that  which  is  over- 
ripe. Some  fruits  contain  too  much  acid,  unless  they  are 
diluted  with  water,  but  it  is  quite  possible  to  add  so  much 
water  that  there  is  neither  enough  pectin  nor  enough  acid 
present.  As  a  rule,  very  juicy  fruits  need  have  only 
sufficient  water  added  to  prevent  burning.  When  they 
are  soft  enough  to  mash  easily,  the  whole  is  transferred 
to  a  cheesecloth  bag  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  the  juice 
is  allowed  to  drip  through.  If  the  pulp  is  squeezed,  the 
resulting  juice  is  not  so  clear,  but  the  flavor  is  not  changed. 
Less  juicy  fruits  must  be  covered  with  water  while  they 
are  cooked.  The  alcohol  test  for  pectin  may  be  relied 
upon  to  tell  whether  the  proper  concentration  is  obtained. 

The  amount  of  sugar  used,  like  the  water,  varies  with 
the  kind  of  fruit.  It  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of 
using  too  little,  rather  than  too  much.  Jelly  made  from 
currants  and  grapes  that  are  rather  green  may  have  as 
much  as  one  part  of  sugar  to  one  part  of  juice,  but,  in 
general,  three-quarters  of  the  amount  of  the  juice  is  the 
right  proportion  of  sugar.  If  at  any  time  the  alcohol  test 
does  not  show  plenty  of  pectin,  lessen  the  amount  of  sugar. 
Too  much  sugar  not  only  will  give  a  jelly  which  is  very 
sweet,  but  may  give  one  that  is  syrupy.  The  amount  of 
acidity  can,  perhaps,  be  as  well  judged  by  taste  as  in  any 
other  way.  Before  the  sugar  is  added,  the  fruit  juice 
should  be  distinctly  tart. 

Jelly  can  be  made  from  fruits  that  are  lacking  in  acid 


PRINCIPLES  OF  JELLY-MAKING  17 

by  the  addition  of  some  acid  of  vegetable  origin,  such  as 
tartaric  or  citric.  This  does  not  always  improve  the 
flavor.  The  acid  is  commonly  added  by  stewing  with 
such  fruits  some  other  fruit  which  will  supply  the  lack- 
ing acid. 

Most  housekeepers  do  not  realize  that  if  fruit  is  allowed 
to  drip  and  is  not  squeezed  through  the  jelly  bag,  the  pulp 
may  be  returned  to  the  kettle  and  boiled  with  more  water, f 
which  gives  additional  extractions.     The  last  should  be 
concentrated  until  the  alcohol  test  shows  the  right  pro- 
portion of  pectin.    The  first  extract  is  usually  made  into; 
jelly  by  itself,  because  it  has  the  finest  flavor,  while  the, 
subsequent  extractions  are  worked  up  together.     Some-\ 
times  even  a  fifth   extraction,   if   it   contains   sufficient  i 
pectin  to  make  it  worth  while,  can  be  made. 

The  time  necessary  for  making  jelly  differs  with  differ- 
ent fruits,  with  the  amounts  of  pectin  and  acid  present, 
and  with  the  proportion  of  sugar  used.  The  jelly,  however, 
should  be  made  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  the  fruit  is 
allowed  to  simmer,  too  long  heating  of  the  pectin  with  the 
acid  may  entirely  destroy  this  substance.  For  this  reason 
the  sugar  is  heated  before  it  is  added  to  the  juice;  if  it 
cools  off  the  mixture,  the  whole  must  be  cooked  a  longer 
time. 

There  are  three  ways  of  making  jelly.  In  one,  the 
sugar  is  added  at  once  to  the  fruit  juice ;  in  another,  the 
fruit  juice  is  boiled  for  some  time  before  the  sugar  is  put  in ; 
while  in  the  third,  it  is  put  in  when  the  fruit  juice  has 
cooked  about  half  the  total  time  necessary  for  making  the 
jelly.  Probably  the  third  of  these  methods  is  the  best. 

After  the  jelly  has  hardened,  it  maybe  covered  in  the  old- 
fashioned  way  by  cutting  a  piece  of  paper  which  will  just 
fit  into  the  top  of  the  jelly  glass,  and  dipping  it  into  alco- 
hol or  brandy,  placing  this  directly  on  the  jelly,  and  then 


18  FOOD  STUDY 

covering  the  top  of  the  glass  with  another  piece  of  paper 
large  enough  to  tie  or  paste  down.  The  alcohol  is  used  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  molds,  spores  of  which  may  have 
settled  on  the  surface  while  the  jelly  was  cooling  and  form- 
ing. The  outer  piece  of  paper  is  used  to  prevent  the  access 
of  fresh  spores  and  to  lessen  evaporation.  A  somewhat 
easier  method  is  to  pour  a  layer  of  melted  paraffin  over  the 
top  of  the  jelly.  The  paraffin  should  be  hot,  so  as  to  kill 
any  germs  which  may  be  present.  If,  in  cooling,  the 
paraffin  shrinks  from  the  side,  leaving  a  crack  between  it 
and  the  glass,  more  paraffin  should  be  poured  in. 

Jelly  keeps  best  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Since  the  color 
of  fruit  sometimes  fades,  it  is  well  to  keep  jellies  and  fruits 
where  they  are  not  exposed  to  too  much  light. 

REFERENCES 

Cornell  Reading  Course  for  the  Farm  Home.    Vol.   1,  No.   15. 

"Principles  of  Jelly-Making." 
U.  S.  Farmers'   Bulletin   No.   203.      "Canned  Fruits,   Preserves, 

and  Jellies." 
U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  388.    "Jelly  and  Jelly  Making." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  not  saucepans  or  spoons  made  of  aluminum,  or  tin, 
be  used  in  cooking  fruit  ? 

2.  Why  should  jelly  bags  be  dipped  into  hot  water  before  being 
used? 

3.  Why  are  jelly  glasses  put  in  hot  water,  or  on  a  cloth  wet  in  hot 
water  before  filling  ? 

4.  Why,  in  jelly-making,  is  fruit  not  quite  ripe  preferred  to  fruit 
over-ripe  ? 

5.  Why  is  jelly  covered  after  making  ? 

6.  Where  is  it  best  to  store  jelly  for  keeping  ? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  fruits  which  are  good  for  jelly-making  and  star 
those  that  are  so  juicy  as  to  require  no  water  added  in  the  making. 


JELLY-MAKING  19 

8.  Make  a  list  of  combinations  of  fruits  that  would  make  good 
jelly. 

9.  Compare  the  cost  of  the  canned  fruit  and  jelly  made  in  the 
laboratory  or  at  home  with  that  of  the  commercial  products. 


IV 
JELLY-MAKING    (continued) 

A.  REPEATED   EXTRACTIONS  OF  JUICE   FOR   JELLY- 
MAKING. 

Use  sour  apples  or  quinces. 

1.  Cut  fruit  in  small  pieces,  without  peeling  or  removing 
seeds.     Place  one  cup  of  fruit  in  a  kettle,  cover  with 
water,  and  cook  until  the  fruit  can  be  mashed  easily. 
Strain  juice  through  a  jelly  bag,  allowing  it  to  drip 
through  without  squeezing  the  bag.     Reserve  the 
pulp  for  a  second  extraction.    Test  one  teaspoon  of 
the  juice  for  pectin.     Keep  the  juice  for  jelly-making, 
marking  it  "Extraction  1." 

2.  Add  water  to  the  pulp  reserved  in  (1)  and  proceed  as 
before.     Test  one  teaspoon  of  the  juice  for  pectin. 
Reserve  the  rest  of  the  juice,  Extraction  II,  for  jelly- 
making. 

3.  Make  a  third  extraction.     Again  test  one  teaspoon 
for  pectin.     Reserve  this  third  extraction  for  jelly- 
making. 

B.  JELLY  FROM  THESE  EXTRACTIONS. 

1.  Make  jelly  from  Extraction  I,  using : 

a.  Three-fourths  as  much  sugar  as  juice. 

b.  Equal  parts  of  sugar  and  juice. 


20  FOOD  STUDY 

2.  Boil  Extractions  II  and  III  together  rapidly,  until  the 
resulting  juice  approximates  the  richness  of  Ex- 
traction I.  (This  may  be  tested  by  alcohol,  by  the 
color  and  taste.)  Measure.  Make  jelly,  using  pro- 
portion of  sugar  to  juice  that  is  found  to  give  the 
best  results. 

C.  Class  Experiments.     FOOD  PKESERVATIVES. 
Sterilize  small  bottles  or  test  tubes. 

1.  Place  a  piece  of  uncooked  fruit  in  each. 

a.  Cover  fruit  with  brine. 

6.  Cover  fruit  with  a  fifty  per  cent  solution  of  sugar. 

c.  Cover  fruit  with  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  sugar. 

d.  Cover  fruit  with  water  and  add  ground  cinna- 
mon, clove,  or  mustard. 

e.  Cover  fruit  with  water  and  add  allspice  or 
nutmeg. 

/.  Cover  fruit  with  vinegar. 

g.  Cover  fruit  with  oil. 

h.  Cover  fruit  with  alcohol. 

2.  Allow  the  tubes  to  stand  for  several  days  and  ex- 
amine from  time  to  time  until  it  is  determined  which 
substances  act  as  preservatives. 

D.  Class  Work.     PREPARE  CUCUMBER  PICKLES. 

Make  unripe  cucumber  pickles,  using  one-fourth  of  a 
cup  of  cucumbers. 

Wipe  about  a  dozen  small,  unripe  cucumbers  and  cover 
them  with  brine  made  by  dissolving  one  tablespoon  of  salt 
to  a  cup  of  boiling  water.  After  three  days,  drain  off  the 
brine,  reheat  it  to  boiling,  and  again  pour  it  over  the 
pickles.  After  a  second  three  days,  drain  the  cucumbers, 
cover  them  with  boiling  water  in  which  a  salt  spoon  of  alum 
has  been  dissolved  for  every  cup  of  water  used.  Allow 
them  to  stand  for  six  hours,  then  remove  them  from  the 


YEASTS  AND  BACTERIA  21 

alum  water,  and  cook  for  ten  minutes  in  a  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing mixture  heated  to  boiling : 

1  pint  vinegar  f  tbsp.  allspice  berries 

|  red  pepper  |  tbsp.  whole  cloves 

Pack  the  cooked  pickles  in  a  jar  and  strain  the  rest  of  the 
mixture  over  them. 

YEASTS  AND  BACTERIA 

As  has  already  been  said,  yeasts  as  well  as  molds  belong 
to  the  colorless  plants  and  fungi.  The  yeast  which  is 
used  in  making  bread  is  a  collection  of  thousands  of  tiny 
yeast  plants,  each  of  which  is  too  small  to  be  seen  without 
the  aid  of  a  microscope.  These  plants  are  even  less  like 
ordinary  plants  than  are  the  molds ;  they  consist  merely 
of  a  single  cell  which  appears,  under  the  microscope,  as  a 
colorless  oval.  These  yeast  plants  are  so  small  and  light 
that,  like  the  spores  of  the  molds,  they  float  about  in  the  air. 

Fruits  preserved  in  sugar  are  especially  apt  to  undergo  a 
change  which,  as  can  be  seen  at  once,  is  not  due  to  mold 
growth.  This  is  the  action  that  takes  place  when  preserves 
"  work  "  or  ferment,  and  it  may  occur  also  in  jellies  or  syrups. 
Anything  which  contains  sugar  and  water  may  show  this 
change.  The  change  is  characterized  by  a  sharp,  pungent 
taste,  and  at  some  stages  by  the  formation  of  bubbles 
through  the  liquid.  Whenever  these  phenomena  occur, 
it  is  a  sign  that  growing  yeasts  are  present.  For  yeasts, 
when  they  grow,  are  able  to  break  up  the  sugar  which  is 
present  and  change  it  partly  into  alcohol,  which  gives  the 
stinging  taste,  and  partly  into  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxide, 
the  escape  of  which  through  the  liquid  makes  the  bubbles. 

While  yeasts  are  producing  these  results,  they  are  mul- 
tiplying rapidly  by  a  method  called  budding.  In  this 


22  FOOD  STUDY 

way  new  cells  are  formed  which  appear  first  as  very  tiny 
buds  on  the  sides  of  the  first  cells  and  gradually  grow  larger 
and  larger  until  finally  they  separate  into  independent 
cells.  When  active  fermentation  is  going  on,  the  yeast 
present  is  always  found  to  be  in  this  growing  state.  If, 
however,  conditions  are  unfavorable,  some  yeast  plants 
can  form  within  each  cell  a  number  of  spores,  each  of 
which  is  capable  of  developing  again  into  a  new  plant. 
This  spore  formation  usually  happens  if  there  is  sufficient 
moisture  present,  but  not  enough  food  to  produce  growth. 
The  air  may  be  laden  with  these  spores  and  even  with 
some  of  the  yeast  cells  themselves,  as  well  as  with  the 
spores  of  molds. 

Other  micro-organisms  carried  by  the  air  are  called 
bacteria.  They  are  as  simple  in  structure  as  the  yeasts, 
and  like  them  consist  of  single  cells.  They  may,  however, 
have  three  distinct  shapes.  Some  are  like  little  rods  and 
are  called  bacilli  (a  bacillus,  for  a  single  one),  others  are 
like  spheres  and  are  called  cocci,  the  third  variety  is  spiral 
and  is  named  spirilla  (in  the  singular,  spirillum).  But 
all  these,  no  matter  what  shape  they  may  be,  reproduce 
in  the  same  way,  and  it  is  this  method  of  reproduction 
which  distinguishes  them  from  the  yeasts.  Each  cell 
grows  a  little  longer  than  it  was  before  and  then  breaks  in 
two,  each  half  being  an  individual.  This  process,  known 
as  reproduction  by  fission,  gives  to  bacteria  the  name  of 
fission  fungi. 

Like  yeasts,  some  bacteria  can  produce  spores  under 
unfavorable  conditions.  A  bacterium,  however,  instead  of 
producing  a  number  of  spores,  forms  only  a  single  one. 
The  advantage  of  the  spore  state  seems  to  be  in  the  greater 
power  of  resistance  that  the  spore  possesses  —  it  is  less 
easily  killed  by  heat  or  cold  or  drying.  If  food  is  being 
sterilized  and  spore-forming  bacteria  are  present,  it  is  quite 


YEASTS  AND  BACTERIA  23 

possible  that  the  heating  will  kill  all  of  the  bacteria  but  the 
spores  will  be  left  alive.  By  the  following  day,  however, 
the  majority  of  these  spores  will  have  again  changed  them- 
selves into  the  ordinary  forms  of  bacteria,  and  a  second 
heating  will  kill  these  forms.  A  third  heating  is  safest  to 
make  sure  that  any  spores  remaining  the  second  day  are 
destroyed.  Both  yeasts  and  bacteria  are  too  small  to  be 
seen  without  a  microscope ;  but  of  the  two,  yeasts  are  much 
the  larger.  While  a  yeast  cell  is  about  one  three-thou- 
sandth of  an  inch  in  diameter,  even  the  largest  bacterium 
has  a  diameter  of  not  more  than  one  ten-thousandth  of 
an  inch.  It  might  well  seem  as  if  organisms  as  small  as 
this  could  not  do  us  either  much  harm  or  much  good,  and 
this  would  probably  be  true  if  it  were  not  for  the  wonderful 
rate  at  which  they  can  multiply.  In  a  bacterium,  division 
may  take  place  every  half  hour,  and  at  that  rate,  in  only 
one  day,  conditions  being  favorable,  a  single  cell  could 
produce  about  seventeen  million  others.  If,  then,  food  is 
to  be  kept  from  spoiling,  it  is  obviously  necessary  to 
exclude  the  entrance  of  even  one  bacterium. 

When  bacteria  first  act  upon  food,  the  result  may  be 
only  beneficial;  the  good  flavor  of  butter  and  some 
cheeses  is  undoubtedly  due  to  their  action.  Bacteria, 
however,  will  finally  render  food  unfit  for  use,  producing 
decay  and  putrefaction.  But  what  a  world  it  would  be 
if  micro-organisms  did  not  bring  about  these  processes. 
Our  world  would  be  littered  with  useless  material,  and  the 
soil  long  ago  would  have  become  exhausted. 

Bacteria  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  classes : 
first,  those  capable  of  producing  diseases,  such  as  typhoid 
and  diphtheria;  second,  those  which  in  the  process  of 
growth  produce  substances  poisonous  to  us.  These  sub- 
stances, called  ptomains,  are  the  cause  of  the  ptomain  poi- 
soning cases  which  occur  from  time  to  time.  The  third 


24  FOOD  STUDY 

class  is  composed  of  those  that  are  either  harmless  or 
beneficial  to  us.  The  bacteria  which  cause  milk  to  sour  not 
only  are  not  any  more  poisonous  to  us  than  are  any  of  the 
other  vegetable  plants  used  for  food,  but  they  may  be  of 
positive  benefit  in  keeping  down  the  growth  of  more  harm- 
ful organisms. 

"Swat  the  fly"  has  become  a  slogan  in  modern  times. 
A  glance  at  the  enlarged  diagram  of  a  fly,  particularly  of 
the  feet,  will  show  why  it  is  considered  objectionable  to 
have  flies  around,  and  especially  so  to  have  them  crawl 
over  food.  Coming  from  infected  material  and  filth,  they 
may  bring  with  them  all  kinds  of  germs.  If  the  germs  are 
introduced  into  food  material,  where  every  condition  is 
right  for  their  reproduction,  it  is  evident  how  trouble 
may  occur.  It  is  very  necessary  then,  that  flies  be  ex- 
cluded from  houses  as  far  as  possible.  Any  flies  that  find 
entrance  must  be  killed  or  caught,  and  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  allow  heaps  of  manure  or  garbage,  or  other  fly- 
breeding  material,  to  stand  long  enough  for  their  larvas  to 
develop  and  escape.  Much  the  easiest  method  of  keeping 
free  from  flies  is  to  control  possible  breeding  places.  A 
new  kind  of  garbage  can  acts  as  fly-catcher  and,  placed 
just  outside  the  house,  may  catch  many  flies  which  would 
otherwise  find  their  way  in.  Then  garbage  and  flies 
together  must  be  disposed  of.  Other  insects  may,  of 
course,  also  act  as  carriers  of  germs,  but  the  fly  especially 
brings  them. 

REFERENCE 

CONN.  "  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home  ",  sections  on 
Bacteria  and  Yeasts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  instances  in  which  bacteria  are  beneficial. 

2.  Why  may  there  be  more  spores  on  the  fruits  and  vegetables 


SWEET  PICKLED  PEACHES  25 

giowing  in  a  very  dry  season  ?    Why  would  such  fruits  be  harder  to 
can  successfully  ? 

3.  Why,  in  making  cucumber  pickles,  is  the  brine  reheated  at 
intervals  ? 

4.  How  should  garbage  cans  be  cared  for  ? 

5.  What  are  the  best  means  of  disposing  of  garbage  ? 

6.  Why  should  all  foods  and  dishes  be  covered  carefully  when 
sweeping  or  dusting  is  going  on  ? 


SWEET  PICKLED  PEACHES 

A.  PREPARE  SWEET   PICKLED  PEACHES. 
Use  one  peach. 

5  peck  peaches  1  pint  vinegar 

2  Ibs.  brown  sugar  1  oz.  stick  cinnamon 

Cloves 

Scald  the  peaches,  peel  them,  and  stick  them  with  three 
or  four  cloves.  Cook  until  tender  a  few  of  them  at  a  time, 
in  a  syrup  made  by  boiling  together  the  sugar,  cinnamon, 
and  vinegar.  Put  in  jars. 

B.  Class  Experiment. 

CONDITIONS  FAVORING  GROWTH  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

Try    the    following    experiments,   using  petri   dishes, 
or  saucers  covered  with  tumblers  or  sheets  of  glass : 
1.  Place  a   piece    of    bread   in   each    of  two    dishes. 
Leave  the   first  piece  of  bread   dry;    moisten  the 
second  piece  with  water.     Expose  both  to  the  air 
for  five  minutes  in  a  room  where  people  are  moving 
about.     Cover,  and  keep  both  in  a  dark  place  (as, 
for  example,  in  a  cupboard)  for  two  days,  and  ob- 
serve the  results. 


26  FOOD   STUDY 

2.  Place  a  piece  of  bread  in  another  dish  and  moisten 
it.     Expose  it  for  five  minutes  in  a  room  when  no 
one  but  yourself  is  present,  and  do  not  move  more 
than  you  can  help  during  the  exposure.     Keep  this 
dish  also  in  the  dark  for  two  days  and  compare  with 
the  second  dish  in  (1). 

3.  Put  pieces  of  bread  (moistened)  in  four  dishes,  and 
expose  all  at  once  for  five  minutes  in  a  room  with 
people  moving  about. 

a.  Keep  the  first  in  a  warm  room. 

b.  Keep  the  second  in  an  ice-box. 

c.  Keep  the  third  in  the  sunlight  as  much  as  possible. 

d.  Keep  the  fourth  in  a  dark,  warm  place. 

Examine  these  at  the  end  of  two  days.  If  necessary, 
let  them  stand  longer.  What  effect  has  dryness  or 
moisture,  warmth  or  cold,  light  or  darkness,  on  the 
growth  of  mold  ?  Account  for  the  difference  in  (2). 

CONDITIONS  FAVORABLE  TO  THE  GROWTH  OF 
MICRO-ORGANISMS 

Food  might  seem  to  be  the  first  condition  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  micro-organisms,  and  so  it  is ;  and  yet  they 
seem  able  to  live  for  a  fair  length  of  time  without  food. 
They  blow  around  in  the  air,  or  are  transmitted  by  water, 
in  neither  of  which  elements  are  they  fed.  Under  these 
circumstances,  it  is  true,  they  are  not  growing  or  multiply- 
ing, and  may  even  be  in  the  spore  state,  but  once  the 
organisms  reach  available  food,  they  begin  to  grow  and 
reproduce  with  wonderful  rapidity. 

Water,  as  well  as  food,  is  necessary,  but  different 
organisms  vary  somewhat  in  regard  to  the  necessary 
amounts.  Bacteria  and  yeasts  require  a  goodly  propor- 


GROWTH  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS  27 

tion  of  water,  and  it  is  only  in  watery  foods  that  they  are 
capable  of  much  growth.  Sugar  and  flour,  for  example, 
are  much  too  dry  for  them.  Twenty-five  to  thirty  per 
cent  of  water  is  necessary  for  any  growth,  and,  even  then, 
it  will  not  be  vigorous.  Most  bacteria  cannot  grow  in 
foods  which  are  strongly  acid,  but  molds  do  not  mind 
the  acid,  and  as  only  small  percentages  of  moisture  are 
necessary  to  keep  them  alive,  in  damp  weather  as  dry  a 
food  as  flour  may  become  moldy.  Even  books  and  clothes 
may  mold  in  a  damp  room.  Mildew  is  one  species  of  mold. 

Bread  that  is  in  a  closed  bread-box  is  apt  to  become 
moldy  if  left  too  long ;  but  if  bread  is  spread  out,  exposed 
to  the  air,  it  will  probably  dry  without  any  molding  at  all. 
Possibly  this  is  because  a  moving  current  of  air  dries  up 
the  moisture ;  but,  whatever  the  reason,  it  is  true  that  mold 
grows  best  in  still  air. 

Bacteria  differ  greatly  in  relation  to  air.  Some  grow 
only  in  the  presence,  others  in  the  absence  of  it,  and  some 
can  prosper  either  way.  The  bacteria  that  live  without  air 
cause  putrefaction  and  are  perhaps  most  likely  to  produce 
ptomains;  but  the  majority  of  bacteria  grow  best  in  an 
abundance  of  air,  and  most  foods  begin  to  spoil  on  the 
surface. 

Direct  sunlight  rapidly  kills  bacteria,  and  any  daylight 
makes  them  grow  more  slowly  and  less  vigorously.  Molds 
may  grow  in  either  light  or  darkness,  but  they,  too,  grow 
best  in  a  dark  place.  Plenty  of  light  and  fresh  air,  then, 
are  the  housekeeper's  allies  in  the  fight  against  micro- 
organisms. 

Another  method  of  checking  the  growth  of  micro- 
organisms is  by  means  of  low  temperatures.  Few  organ- 
isms can  make  any  but  the  most  feeble  growth  in  the  cold. 
Even  rather  slight  differences  in  temperature  seem  to  have 
surprisingly  great  effects. 


28  FOOD  STUDY 

For  this  reason  food  is  placed  in  an  ice-box  to  delay  the 
growth  of  the  micro-organisms,  but  as  the  temperature, 
even  in  very  well-constructed  refrigerators  with  a  large 
ice  chamber,  is  forty  to  forty-five  degrees,  usually  nearer 
fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  growth  can  be  delayed  only  for 
a  limited  time.  Such  food  will  spoil  eventually.  But  a 
temperature  even  of  sixty  degrees  is  still  a  great  aid  in 
keeping  food  temporarily.  Cold  storage  is  more  efficient 
than  home  refrigeration,  because  a  lower  temperature  is 
used. 

There  are  other  means  of  preserving  food,  besides  the 
use  of  cold  temperatures.  Drying  evidently  prevents  the 
growth  of  bacteria,  since  they  need  so  much  water,  and, 
if  this  is  thorough,  it  may  also  prevent  mold  action. 
Dried  fruits  of  all  kinds  have  long  been  used,  as  have 
also  some  dried  vegetables.  Lately,  more  kinds  of  dried 
vegetables  have  been  put  upon  the  market,  and  even 
desiccated  soups.  All  these  are  good  food,  as  nutritious 
as  before  drying,  but  they  do  not  retain  quite  the 
original  flavors. 

Foods  which  can  be  boiled  and  canned  may  be  made 
truly  sterile,  and  if  the  process  is  carried  out  properly,  such 
materials  will  keep  indefinitely.  Fruits  and  vegetables 
may  well  be  taken  care  of  in  this  manner. 

In  recent  years,  still  another  method  of  preserving  food 
has  been  used.  This  consists  in  the  addition  of  something 
which  will  at  least  lessen  the  growth  of  germs,  if  not  en- 
tirely prevent  it.  The  difficulty  is  to  find  substances  which 
will  do  this  and  yet  have  no  harmful  effect  upon  the  people 
who  eat  the  food.  Among  the  substances  commonly 
used  for  this  purpose  are  borax,  benzoic  and  salicylic 
acids,  and  formalin.  These  are  all  known  to  be  harmful  if 
taken  in  large  amounts,  but  they  are  believed  to  have  com- 
paratively little  effect  in  small  quantities.  But  because,  if 


FOOD  PRESERVATIVES  29 

they  are  allowed  at  all,  it  is  difficult  to  be  sure  that  they 
will  be  in  sufficiently  small  amounts,  and  because  repeated 
doses  possibly  may  cause  trouble,  or  small  doses  from  a 
number  of  foods  combine  to  make  a  large  dose,  and  because 
some  people  (such  as  young  children  and  invalids)  are 
more  susceptible  to  them  than  others,  the  national  pure 
food  law  has  forbidden  the  ordinary  use  of  them,  unless 
the  kind  and  amount  of  any  such  added  substance  is 
plainly  printed  on  the  bottle  or  can  in  which  the  food  is 
sold. 

There  are,  however,  some  food  substances  which,  them- 
selves, have  something  of  the  preserving  effect.  Mixing 
foods  with  sufficient  sugar  protects  them  well  from  bacteria 
or  mold  growth,  but  not  quite  so  well  against  yeasts. 
Raisins,  dates,  and  figs  all  have  so  much  sugar  in  them  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  add  any  more  to  insure  their  keeping 
well,  when  they  are  partially  dried.  Salt,  too,  has  preserv- 
ative action,  and  salting  fish  is  a  usual  device  for  keeping 
it.  Other  foods,  like  corned  beef,  are  kept  immersed  in 
brine,  —  that  is,  in  salt  and  water.  Salted  butter,  too, 
keeps  better  than  fresh,  and  perhaps  that  is  why  so  little 
fresh  butter  is  used  in  this  country.  Salty  foods  are  un- 
doubtedly not  so  digestible  as  fresh,  and  the  use  of  such 
foods  for  invalids  and  young  children  is  questionable. 
Vinegar,  sometimes  reinforced  by  spices,  is  another  food 
preservative,  but  pickled  foods  will  not  keep  indefinitely. 
Many  of  the  common  spices  also  have  some  preservative 
power.  Mince  meat,  if  kept  cool,  will  remain  in  good 
condition  for  a  long  period.  Fruit-cake,  which  is  highly 
spiced,  keeps  well.  Sausage  is  another  food  which  is 
spiced  in  order  to  prevent  spoiling.  But  pickled  or  spiced 
food,  like  that  preserved  in  salt,  is  probably  far  less  digest- 
ible than  in  the  original  form,  and  the  too  frequent  use  of 
it  is  to  be  avoided. 


30  FOOD   STUDY 


REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  375.    "Care  of 

Food  in  the  Home." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  459.  "House  Flies." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  353.  "The  Ice-Box." 
CONN.  "Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home",  sections  on 

Yeasts  and  Bacteria. 
Cornell  Reading  Course  for  the  Farm  Home .    ' '  Preservation  of  Food 

in  the  Home  ",  especially  pages  281-286  inclusive. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Under  what  circumstances  is  it  wise  for  a  housewife  to  put  up 
much  fruit  ? 

2.  Why  is  drying  a  means  of  preserving  fruits  and  vegetables  ? 

3.  What  preservative  is  sometimes  added  to  commercial  catsup? 

4.  How  must  an  ice-box  be  taken  care  of  ? 

5.  What  foods  should  never  be  placed  in  an  ice-box? 

6.  What  kinds  of  foods  is  it  unnecessary  to  keep  in  a  cool  place, 
and  why  ? 

7.  Why  should  butter  and  milk  be  covered  when  in  the  refrigerator, 
and  if  possible  kept  in  a  compartment  by  themselves  ? 

8.  When  a  bread-box  smells  musty  how  must  it  be  cared  for  ? 


VI 


USE   OF   WATER   IN   COOKING 

BOILED  POTATOES 
MASHED  POTATOES 

A.    VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  BOILING  POTATOES. 
(Each  student  is  to  try  one  way  and  compare  the  result 
with  the  others.) 

1.  Wash  and  scrub  a  potato.     Cook  it  in  boiling  salted 

water  until  it  is  soft.    Allow  one  teaspoon  of  salt  to 

one  quart  of  water. 


USE   OF  WATER  IN  COOKING  31 

2.  Boil  a  potato  as  directed  in  (1),  but  pare  it  before 
boiling. 

3.  Boil  a  potato  as  in  (1),  but,  before  boiling,  cut  off  a 
strip  of  the  skin  all  around  the  potato. 

How  do  these  potatoes  differ  in  color  and  in  mealiness, 
after  they  are  done  ? 

Mash  the  potato  with  a  fork.  Beat  till  light  and 
creamy.  Add  two  teaspoons  of  hot  milk,  one-half 
teaspoon  of  butter,  and  season  with  salt,  while  beat- 
ing. Heap  the  potato  on  a  buttered  plate  and  make 
an  indentation  in  the  middle  of  the  heap.  Open  an 
egg,  being  careful  not  to  break  the  yolk,  slip  it  into  the 
indentation  in  the  potato,  and  place  all  in  an  oven 
until  the  egg  is  cooked  sufficiently  to  suit  taste. 
Season  egg  with  a  very  little  butter,  salt,  and  pepper. 
Pimento  may  be  rubbed  through  a  strainer  and 
beaten  into  the  potato  at  the  beginning  to  add  color 
and  flavor. 

B.    Class  Experiment.    COMPOSITION  OF  A  POTATO. 
(To  be  carried  out  while  the  potatoes  are  boiling.) 

1.  Pare  a  small  potato;   cut  off  a  slice  and  leave  it 
exposed  to  the  air  for  half  an  hour. 

2.  Grate  the  rest  of  the  potato  into  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth.    Gather  up  the  corners  of  the  cloth  and,  by 
squeezing,  press  out  all  the  liquid  possible.     Then 
wash  in  a  bowl  of  water  till  nothing  more  can  be 
extracted.     Allow  the  water  to  stand,  and  examine 
the  sediment.     Look  at  it  under  the  microscope. 
Boil  a  portion  of  it.     Test  a  portion  with  iodine.     A 
blue  color  indicates  the  presence  of  starch. 

3.  Examine  the  contents  of  the  cheesecloth.     What 
ingredients  of  potato  have  you  found  so  far  ? 

4.  Put  a  pared  potato  into  a  large  kettle  of  cold  water, 


32  FOOD   STUDY 

and  then  put  the  kettle  on  to  boil.  When  the 
potato  is  cooked,  compare  it  with  those  started  in 
boiling  water  in  (A). 

C.    Class  Experiment. 

DIFFERENT  STAGES  IN  THE  BOILING  OF  WATER. 

Heat  some  water  in  a  saucepan  to  boiling ;  meanwhile, 
with  a  thermometer,  take  the  temperature  of  the  water 
at  the  following  stages : 

1.  When  the  first  small  bubbles  appear  on  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  pan.     (What  are  these  bubbles  ?) 

2.  When  the  water  feels  neither  hot  nor  cold  to  the  hand. 
(Lukewarm) 

3.  When  somewhat  larger  bubbles  appear  around  the 
edge  and  at  the  bottom  of   the  pan.     (Scalding) 
What  are  these  bubbles  ? 

4.  When  the  bubbles  begin  to  rise.     (Simmering) 

5.  When  the  bubbles  rise  rapidly,  breaking,  and  com- 
pletely agitating  the  surface  of  the  water.     (Boiling) 

6.  Increase  the  heat  and  see  if  the  water  gets  hotter. 

POTATOES 

The  name  potato  is  a  corruption  of  the  last  part  of  the 
Latin  name  for  sweet  potatoes,  ipomcea  batata,  but  the 
name  by  common  consent  is  given  to  our  white  potato. 
White  potatoes  are  a  native  of  America,  perhaps  of  Chile, 
and  were  not  known  in  Europe  until  about  1580.  They 
were  introduced  into  North  America  about  the  same 
time.  At  first,  they  did  not  meet  with  great  favor  in 
Europe,  and  it  was  not  until  there  was  shortage  in  a  series 
of  staple  crops  that  they  sprang  into  favor.  Now  they 
have  been  adopted  in  Ireland  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  people,  and  for  that 
reason  are  often  called  Irish  potatoes. 


POTATOES 


33 


Potatoes  form  forty  per  cent  of  the  total  vegetable  crop 
of  the  world,  so  that  their  name  of  king  of  vegetables  is  not 
undeserved,  and  they  are  next  in  importance  among  the 
vegetable  products  to  cereals.  When  we  compare  these 
facts  with  the  report  that  at  the  time  of  our  American 
Revolution  a  well-to-do  family  thought  itself  fortunate  if 
it  had  at  most  a  barrel  of  potatoes  for  its  winter  supply, 
and  that  these  were  only  served  on  special  occasions  and 
for  honored  guests,  we  can  see  how  greatly  the  relative 
importance  of  the  position  of  the  potato  has  changed. 

The  potato  is  a  tuber,  that  is,  an  underground  stem 
which  is  thickened  and  has  become  a  storehouse  for  future 
plants.  The  eyes  of  the  potato  are  buds  from  which  the 
new  plants  will  sprout  under  proper  conditions.  These 
new  plants  use  the  food  material  which  is  stored  in  the 
potato,  and  the  tuber  itself  is  thereby  gradually  rendered 
unfit  for  food. 


CRUDE 


FATOJfy 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  POTATO 

The  average  loss  of  nutrients  from  boiling  is  shown  by  the 
shading. 

If  a  thin  slice  across  a  potato  is  held  up  to  the  light,  four 
distinct  parts  are  observable.  First  comes  the  grayish 
brown  skin,  which  corresponds  with  the  bark  of  an  ordinary 
stem.  Underneath  this  is  the  cortical  layer,  which  may  be 


34 


FOOD  STUDY 


from  a  tenth  to  a  fifth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  is  often  slightly 
colored.  If  this  layer  is  exposed  to  sunlight  for  some 
time,  it  will  turn  green,  showing  its  relation  to  the  green 
layer  which  is  found  underneath  the  bark  of  an  ordinary 
stem.  The  inner  layers  are 
known  as  the  flesh  of  the 
potato,  and,  for  our  pur- 
pose, may  be  considered  as 
one.  The  potato  is  made 
up  of  a  network  of  cells; 
|  the  cell  walls  being,  of 
course,  largely  cellulose. 
The  cells  are  filled  with 
water  in  which  is  dis- 


SECTIONS  OF  THE  POTATO 

a,  skin ;  6,  cortical  layer ;  c,  outer  medullary  layer ;  d,  inner 
medullary  layer. 

solved  mineral  matter,  a  little  sugar,  and  most  of  the 
protein  *  which  is  found  in  the  potato.  In  the  cells  and 
surrounded  by  this  water  are  the  starch  grains.  While  a 

*  Protein  is  the  foodstuff  containing  nitrogen,  and  is  essential 
for  building  body  tissue  which  contains  nitrogen. 


POTATOES  35 

little  fat  is  also  present  the  amount  is  so  small  that  it 
need  not  be  taken  into  consideration. 

The  potato  is  largely  composed  of  water,  seventy-eight 
and  three-tenths  per  cent,  so  over  three-quarters  of  the 
whole  weight  is  water.  Of  the  eighteen  and  four-tenths 
per  cent  carbohydrate,  about  sixteen  per  cent  is  starch. 
There  is  only  four-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  cellulose  pres- 
ent. Although  they  are  small  in  amount,  the  two  and  two- 
tenths  per  cent  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  one  per  cent  of 
mineral  matter  are  important. 

Besides  the  substances  already  mentioned,  there  is  also 
a  trace  of  solanin,  a  poisonous  substance  which  may  occur 
in  greater  or  less  amounts  and  which  is  said  to  give  the 
characteristic  flavor  to  the  potato.  This  trace  of  solanin 
is  supposed  to  be  volatilized  during  the  cooking  of  the 
vegetable,  and  so  it  is  improbable  that  we  ever  eat  it  in  any 
large  amounts.  If  the  potato  is  old  and  has  been  allowed 
to  sprout,  if  it  is  unripe,  or  if  it  has  been  grown  too  near 
the  surface  and  so  has  a  decidedly  green  color,  it  may 
contain  sufficient  solanin  to  cause  some  digestive  disturb- 
ance. Instances  of  this,  however,  are  probably  very 
rare.  A  fear  of  it  makes  us  careful  to  cut  away  the  flesh 
immediately  around  the  sprout  in  an  old  potato.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  to  prevent  sprouting,  not  only  for 
this  reason,  but  because  the  sprouts  use  up  the  food  ma- 
terial in  the  tuber.  Potatoes,  then,  should  be  stored  in  a 
dark,  dry,  cool  place,  and  should  be  protected  against 
freezing.  A  potato  that  has  been  frozen  has  a  sweetish 
taste  and  is  never  so  mealy  as  a  good  potato. 

Potatoes  are  distinguished  as  mealy,  soggy,  and  waxy. 
Most  people  prefer  a  mealy  potato.  This  quality  in  the 
vegetable  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  amount  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  starch.  If,  however,  in  cooking,  the  steam 
in  a  potato  is  allowed  to  condense  to  water,  the  potato 


36  FOOD   STUDY 

becomes  soggy.  For  this  reason  potatoes  should  never  be 
allowed  to  cease  boiling  while  they  are  cooking;  they 
should  be  dried  out  as  completely  as  possible  when  they 
are  done,  and  served  in  an  uncovered  dish.  Baked 
potatoes  should  be  pricked  with  a  fork  or  opened  at  once 
when  they  are  done.  Some  potatoes  are  naturally  soggy, 
but  a  good  potato  can  be  made  so  by  poor  handling  in  its 
preparation  for  the  table.  New  potatoes  are  much  more 
waxy  than  older  ones,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  larger  amount 
of  protein  present. 

Potatoes  are  sold  both  by  measure  and  by  weight,  but  in 
many  places  dealers  are  now  required  to  sell  by  weight, 
because  that  gives  a  more  uniform  amount  to  the  customer. 
Potatoes  should  run  fifteen  pounds  to  a  peck.  In  select- 
ing, those  of  medium  size  and  with  a  smooth  skin  should 
be  chosen.  A  large  potato  is  more  liable  to  break  up  in 
cooking,  and  a  small  one  means  too  much  trouble  in 
preparation  if  it  is  to  be  pared. 

In  preparing  potatoes  for  the  table,  they  should  first  be 
washed  and  then  scrubbed  with  a  small  brush.  If  they 
are  to  be  boiled,  they  may  or  may  not  be  pared  before 
cooking.  If  they  are  pared  and  then  exposed  to  the  air 
for  any  length  of  time  they  will  turn  dark,  owing  to  the 
action  of  oxygen,  together  with  a  ferment  which  is  found 
in  the  potato.  This  can  be  prevented  by  dropping  the 
potatoes  into  cold  water,  which  excludes  the  air.  Soaking, 
however,  should  be  avoided,  for  it  removes  some  of  the 
food  material,  which  means  loss  of  nutriment,  and  is  only 
permissible  if  the  potato  is  rather  old,  wizened,  or  inferior. 
In  that  case,  the  product  is  so  much  improved  by  the  soak- 
ing that  we  are  justified,  even  though  some  food  value  is 
lost.  Since  the  cortical  layer  contains  a  higher  percentage 
of  both  the  protein  and  mineral  salts  than  the  rest  of  the 
potato,  unless  paring  is  carefully  done  we  lose  a  large 


POTATOES  37 

part  of  the  most  valuable  ingredients.  If  much  fruit  and 
salad  vegetables  are  included  in  the  diet,  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  consider  the  loss  of  mineral  salts ;  but  if  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  them,  the  potato  should  be  cooked  in  its 
jacket.  This  means  that  the  potato  is  not  quite  so  white, 
but  there  is  no  special  reason  why  a  perfectly  white  potato 
should  be  demanded.  If  potatoes  are  put  on  in  cold  water 
to  boil,  the  same  effect  as  soaking  is  obtained.  Most  of 
the  mineral  matter  and  protein,  and  some  of  the  starch 
are  lost.  If,  instead,  the  potatoes  are  placed  in  boiling 
water,  the  protein  is  coagulated  quickly  and  less  of  it 
escapes.  Most  of  the  mineral  salts  are  still  dissolved  by  the 
water  and  so  lost,  since  potato  water  has  rather  too  strong 
and  disagreeable  a  flavor  to  be  palatable  and  is  usually 
thrown  away.  Potatoes  may  be  steamed  with  little  loss 
of  nutriment,  or  baked,  in  which  case  practically  nothing 
is  lost  but  water.  Potatoes  are  cooked  partly  to  hydrate 
the  starch,  and  partly  because  the  expansion  of  water  into 
steam  means  the  breaking  of  the  cellulose  walls  of  the 
cells,  whereby  the  contents  become  more  readily  digestible. 
Probably  the  chief  reason  is  the  improvement  of  flavor. 

Since  potatoes  contain  a  small  amount  of  cellulose,  com- 
pared with  most  other  vegetables,  they  are  digestible,  and 
there  is  comparatively  little  difference  in  their  digestibility 
as  a  result  of  different  ways  of  cooking.  A  mealy  potato 
seems  to  be  more  digestible  than  a  soggy  or  waxy  one, 
probably  because  it  is  better  broken  up,  and  so  the  diges- 
tive juices  can  get  at  it  better.  Potatoes  have  long  been 
classed  as  a  starchy  food,  and  most  books  state  that  there 
is  so  little  protein  present  that  it  need  not  be  taken  into 
account.  Max  Rubner,  in  a  recent  paper,  states  that  the 
protein  present  is  of  such  a  character  and  amount  as  to 
form  a  balanced  ration,  if  it  were  possible  to  consume  the 
necessary  bulk  to  supply  the  needed  energy.  Potatoes 


38  FOOD  STUDY 

are  so  bulky,  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  water 
present,  that  they  cannot  serve  as  a  sole  food. 

Sweet  potatoes  differ  botanically  from  white  in  that  they 
are  thickened  roots  instead  of  stems.  Chemically,  they 
contain  about  nine  per  cent  less  water,  and  more  carbo- 
hydrate. Most  of  this  additional  carbohydrate  is  sugar, 
which  accounts  for  the  sweet  taste.  Sweet  potatoes 
grown  in  different  regions  vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of 
sugar,  those  grown  in  the  south  containing  a  larger  per- 
centage than  those  in  the  north.  There  is  so  little  differ- 
ence in  food  value  between  sweet  and  white  potatoes  that 
they  may  be  substituted  for  one  another  in  the  diet. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  244.     "Cooking  Quality  of  Potatoes." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  256.     "Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the 

Table." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  295.     '  'Potatoes  and  other  Root  Crops  as 

Food." 

Office  of  Exp.  Station  Bulletin  No.  43.  "Losses  in  Cooking  Vege- 
tables." "Comparison  of  the  Digestibility  of  Potatoes  and 
Eggs." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  not  potatoes  be  tightly  covered  while  boiling? 

2.  How  should  they  be  cared  for  when  done  ? 

3.  Why  are  new  potatoes  more  often  cooked  in  their  skins  or 
jackets  than  old  potatoes  ? 

4.  When  do  new  potatoes  come  into  market  ? 

5.  What  is  the  average  cost  of  potatoes  ? 

6.  Is  it  fairer  to  sell  potatoes  by  weight  or  measure?    Would  a 
bushel  of  very  large  potatoes  or  of  very  small  potatoes  give  the  pur- 
chaser most  for  his  money  ? 

7.  How  should  potatoes  be  kept  to  prevent  sprouting?    What 
harm  does  the  sprout  do  the  potato  ? 

8.  Are  old  or  new  potatoes  considered  more  digestible?    Why? 


USE  OF  WATER  IN  COOKING  39 

9.  If  you  are  going  to  use  the  potato  mashed,  what  is  the  advan- 
tage of  cutting  the  potato  into  slices  before  cooking?  What  is  the 
disadvantage  ? 

10.  Why  should  potatoes  be  pared  as  thinly  as  possible  without 
too  great  waste  of  time?    Where  do  the  mineral  salts  in  potatoes 
lie? 

11.  If  the  potatoes  you  wish  to  boil  together  are  not  all  one  size, 
what  will  you  do  ? 

12.  Compare  the  temperature  you  obtained  for  boiling  water  with 
the  temperatures  to  be  obtained  at  sea  level,  and  on  high  mountains. 
Explain  the  variations. 


VII 
USE   OF   WATER   IN   COOKING 

BOILED  EGGS 
STUFFED  EGGS 

A.    Class  Experiments.    EGGS. 

1.  Weigh  out  a  pound  of  eggs.     How  many  average- 
sized   eggs  in  a  pound?     Repeat  with  small  eggs. 
With   large   eggs.     Would  it  be  fairer  to  sell  eggs 
by  the  pound  instead  of  by  the  dozen? 

2.  Boil  an  egg  in  a  strong  solution  of  cochineal  for 
half   an  hour.     Break  open  and  examine.     What 
property   of    the   shell  is    shown?    What   problem 
does  this  present  in  the  care  of  eggs? 

3.  Tests  for  freshness. 

a.  Place  eggs  in   a   ten   per   cent   salt   solution. 
What  is  the  relation  of  the  freshness  of  an  egg 
to  its  specific  gravity  ? 

b.  Roll  up  a  large  sheet  of  paper  into  a  cylinder. 
Place   an  egg  in  one  end   and    look   through 
the    other   end.    Hold   in    front    of    a    strong 


40  FOOD   STUDY 

light.    What    may    a    dark    appearance    indi- 
cate? 

c.  Note  the  feeling  of  the  shell,  rough  or  smooth. 

d.  Shake  various  eggs. 

Are  all  these  tests  reliable  with  cold  storage 
eggs? 

B.  Class  Experiment. 

COOKING  TEMPERATURE  OF  WHITE  OF  EGG. 

1.  Put  a  little  white  of  an  egg  into  a  test  tube  and  im- 
merse the  test  tube  in  cool  water  above  the  level  of 
the  egg  inside.     Hold  a  thermometer  in  the  egg  white, 
and  heat  the  water  gradually,   watching  the  egg 
carefully.    As  soon  as  it  becomes  opaque  remove  the 
tube  from  the  water   and  note  the  temperature. 
Try  some  of  the  egg,  and  notice  how  tender  it  is. 
Replace  the  test  tube  with  the  rest  of  the  egg  white 
and  heat  as  long  as  the  temperature  rises.     Remove 
and  compare  with  the  first. 

2.  Cook  an  egg  in  boiling  water  for  three  minutes. 
Cook  another  by  keeping  it  five  minutes  in  water 
just  below  the  boiling  point  (about  175°  F.).     Break 
and  compare  consistency. 

3.  Boil  an  egg  for  twenty  minutes.     Compare  with  an 
egg  kept  in  water  just  below  the  boiling  point  for 
forty-five  minutes. 

C.  Class  Experiment.    BOILING  EGGS. 

1.  Place  three  eggs  in  three  pints  of  boiling  water. 
Cover  closely  to  retain  heat,  but  remove  from  flame- 
Remove : 

a.  one  egg  in  five  minutes, 

b.  one  egg  in  seven  minutes, 

c.  one  egg  in  ten  minutes. 


WATER  41 

2.  Give  directions  for  cooking  correctly : 

a.  a  soft-cooked  egg, 

b.  a  medium-cooked  egg, 

c.  a  hard-cooked  egg. 

D.    PREPARE  STUFFED  EGGS. 

Cut  a  hard-cooked  egg  in  halves ;  carefully  remove  the 
yolk.    Season  the  yolk  by  mashing  and  mixing  with  it 

|  tsp.  vinegar  A  pinch  of  salt 

1  ssp.  mustard  A  few  grains  of  paprika 

Add  melted  butter,  about  a  fourth  of  a  teaspoon,  so  that 
the  yolk  can  be  molded,  shape  into  balls,  and  refill  the 
whites.  Cheese  or  minced  ham  may  be  added  to  the  yolk. 


WATER 

Water,  as  everyone  knows,  exists  in  three  states  or 
conditions.  It  may  be  solid,  in  which  case  it  is  called  ice ; 
it  may  be  liquid,  and  then  it  is  really  called  water ;  or  it 
may  be  a  vapor,  in  which  case  it  is  spoken  of  as  steam. 
The  difference  between  these  states  is  merely  one  of  tem- 
perature. It  takes  heat  to  turn  ice  into  water,  and  it  takes 
heat  to  turn  water  into  steam.  Since  water  cannot,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  grow  any  hotter  than  its  boiling 
point,  cooking  will  not  proceed  any  faster  because  the 
water  is  boiling  fast  instead  of  slow.  All  that  is  accom- 
plished is  the  turning  of  more  water  into  steam.  If  the 
object  is  the  concentration  of  the  material,  then  it  is  of 
course  desirable  to  boil  fast ;  but  in  most  boiling  it  means 
merely  a  waste  of  heat.  Occasionally  the  rapid  motion  is 
itself  desirable,  because  it  keeps  the  food  from  settling 
to  the  bottom  of  the  pan  and  perhaps  burning.  The 
pressure  cooker  is  a  device  for  retaining  the  steam  and  so 


42  FOOD   STUDY 

increasing  the  pressure  that  the  water  itself  actually  is 
hotter  than  the  usual  boiling  point.  Food  can,  of  course, 
be  cooked  faster  in  it  than  in  the  usual  covered  kettle, 
because  the  temperature  is  really  higher. 

Water  is  used  in  more  than  one  way  in  cooking.  Some- 
times it  acts  as  a  carrier  of  flavor,  as  when  it  is  used  to 
extract  the  flavor  of  tea  or  coffee ;  sometimes  as  a  means 
of  conveying  heat  to  the  food  to  be  cooked.  This  is  its 
use  in  boiling  or  steaming.  At  other  times  water  is  taken 
up  into  the  food  itself.  In  cooking  rice,  for  example, 
there  is  much  starch  present  but  not  enough  water  to 
hydrate  it.  This  is  the  reason  that  rice  cannot  be  put  in 
an  oven  and  baked  as  a  potato  can. 

Water  is  composed  of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
It  is  true  that  some  water  is  actually  manufactured  in  the 
body  by  the  oxidation  of  some  of  the  hydrogen  contained 
in  food,  but  as  the  water  we  consume  as  such  is  never 
broken  up  in  the  body  into  these  two  gases,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  consider  further  its  chemical  composition. 

Although  water  is  not  capable  of  furnishing  the  body 
with  energy,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  us.  While 
people  have  proved  that  it  is  possible  to  go  without  food 
for  weeks,  it  is  impossible  to  live  any  length  of  time  with- 
out water.  The  body  itself  is  about  two-thirds  water. 
This\neans  that  there  must  be  water  to  build  up  into  body 
substance.  Besides  this,  water  has  many  important 
functions.  For  example,  it  moistens  the  digestive  tract ; 
makes  it  possible  to  swallow  food ;  softens  the  food  itself ; 
mixes  with  the  digestive  ferments,  and  so  enables  them  to 
act  upon  all  parts  of  the  food.  It  dissolves  the  food  as  it 
is  digested  and  carries  it  through  the  lining  of  the  digestive 
tract.  Then,  the  blood  is  composed  largely  of  water,  as 
are  all  the  other  fluids  of  the  body ;  so  it  is  water  that 
carries  nourishment  to  all  the  different  cells  in  the  body. 


WATER  43 

Water  in  the  blood  circulating  through  the  body  acts  as  a 
distributor  of  heat,  and,  again,  the  evaporation  of  water  as 
perspiration  helps  to  regulate  the  heat  of  the  body.  It  is 
water,  too,  that  dissolves  and  carries  away  the  wastes  of 
the  body.  But  these  are  only  some  of  the  important  func- 
tions of  water.  It  is  probable  that  none  of  the  chemical 
and  physiological  changes  which  go  on  in  the  body  can 
take  place  except  in  the  presence  of  water. 

The  body  gives  off  from  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys 
about  four  and  one-half  pints  of  water  daily.  About  one- 
sixth  of  this  amount  is  the  water  that  was  spoken  of  as 
manufactured  from  the  oxidation  of  food ;  the  remaining 
amount  must  be  taken  into  the  body  daily.  Of  course, 
a  good  deal  of  water  is  furnished  by  foods  themselves. 
Soups  and  beverages  obviously  contain  large  amounts  of 
water,  but  many  other  so-called  solid  foods,  like  potatoes, 
contain  large  amounts.  It  is  usually  said  that  a  person 
needs  about  eight  glasses  of  liquid  a  day. 

At  one  time  it  was  considered  harmful  to  drink  water 
with  meals,  for  it  was  feared  that  the  water  would  dilute 
the  digestive  juices  to  such  an  extent  that  they  would  fail 
to  act  upon  the  food.  This  notion  is  still  popularly  be- 
lieved. Recent  experiments,  however,  were  tried  to 
determine  the  truth  of  the  matter.  Healthy  men  were  fed 
test  meals,  in  some  cases  water  being  given  and  in  others 
withheld.  After  a  certain  length  of  time,  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  were  examined  to  see  how  fast  digestion  had 
proceeded.  In  every  case  it  was  discovered  that  digestion 
took  place  more  quickly  if  water  had  been  given.  We  know 
now  that  the  taking  of  water  at  meals  is  beneficial,  stim- 
ulating digestion  and  not  hindering  it.  What  has  been 
said  is  not  in  any  way  intended  to  imply  that  the  washing 
down  with  water  of  poorly  chewed  food  is  anything  but 
harmful.  That  is  an  entirely  different  question;  nor 


44  FOOD  STUDY 

is  it  intended  to  imply  that  the  drinking  of  large  quantities 
of  very  cold  water  may  not  have  a  different  effect  from 
the  one  described.  Cold  stops  digestion,  or  slows  it, 
and  too  much  ice  water  at  a  meal  may  readily  have 
this  effect. 

People  who  wish  to  grow  thin  are  often  told  to  go  with- 
out water  at  meal  times.  The  reason  this  is  an  aid  is  not 
that  water  itself  is  fattening,  but  because  less  is  eaten  if  no 
liquid  is  taken.  The  same  effect  would  be  accomplished 
if  we  should  in  any  other  way  lessen  the  amount  eaten. 
Anyone  going  without  water  at  meals  should  be  sure  to 
drink  the  needed  amount  of  water  between  meals,  for 
water  is  just  as  necessary  to  him  as  to  anyone  else. 

Water  is  usually  classified  as  surface  and  ground  water. 
Rain  water  and  water  from  streams  and  rivers  belong  to 
the  first  class.  Well  water  and  deep  spring  water  belong 
to  the  second.  Rain  water  is  our  purest  water,  if  it  is  col- 
lected from  a  clean  surface  after  the  dust  in  the  air  has 
been  washed  out.  This  water,  flowing  along  the  ground  or 
through  it,  dissolves  or  carries  along  with  it  many  different 
substances.  Water  which  has  much  mineral  substance 
dissolved  in  it  is  called  hard ;  this  is  the  water  that  will 
not  lather  easily  with  soap.  Hard  water  is,  however,  of 
two  kinds.  In  one  case  there  is  present  a  soluble  lime 
salt  which  precipitates  if  the  water  is  boiled.  This  is  the 
water  which  leaves  a  crust  on  the  inside  of  a  tea  kettle. 
It  is  called  temporarily  hard  because  the  water  itself  is 
softer  after  the  boiling.  Water  containing  salts  of  lime 
and  magnesium  which  are  unaffected  by  the  boiling  is 
called  permanently  hard.  Permanently  hard  water  may, 
however,  be  softened  by  the  addition  of  such  chemicals  as 
soda,  ammonia,  and  borax.  Soft  water  is  much  the  best 
for  washing  and  also  for  cooking,  but  it  is  not  so  palatable 
as  harder  water.  Water  that  is  very  hard  is  possibly  not 


WATER  45 

so  good  for  us.  If  it  can  be  softened  by  boiling,  it  may  be 
cooled  and  used  for  drinking. 

Water  is  a  carrier  of  bacteria,  and  the  most  harmful 
water  is  not  hard  water,  but  water  which  contains  harm- 
ful bacteria.  There  are  many  kinds  of  domestic  filters 
which  are  supposed  to  remove  the  bacteria  from  the 
water.  Most  of  them  are  not  reliable  and,  in  any  event, 
need  great  care.  They  must  be  sterilized  frequently  or 
the  water  which  goes  through  them  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain more  bacteria  than  it  did  before.  If  there  is  any 
reason  to  believe  that  the  water  is  dangerous,  it  is  much 
safer  to  sterilize  the  water  by  boiling  it.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  bring  the  water  to  boiling  and  then  cool  it. 
Water  which  has  been  boiled  tastes  flat  because  it  contains 
less  air  dissolved  in  it.  The  palatability  can  be  increased 
by  pouring  the  water  back  and  forth  from  one  pitcher  to 
another  so  as  again  to  dissolve  air  in  it. 

Freezing  does  not  sterilize  water.  While  in  cities,  at 
least,  our  water  usually  comes  from  a  reservoir  that  is 
carefully  protected  from  contamination,  our  ice  supply 
may  come  from  a  private  pond  in  which  the  water  may 
be  quite  impure.  Unless  it  is  known  that  the  water 
from  which  the  ice  was  made  was  pure,  the  ice  itself  should 
not  be  put  into  beverages  or  foods.  Instead,  they  can  be 
set  on  ice  to  cool.  So-called  artificial  ice  is  manufactured 
by  freezing  water  in  large  tanks,  the  necessary  cold  tem- 
perature being  often  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of 
ammonia.  Such  ice  is  as  pure  as  the  water  from  which  it 
is  made. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Bulletin  57.     "Water  Supply,  Plumb- 
ing and  Sewage  Disposal  for  Country  Houses." 
OGDEN.    "Rural  Hygiene." 


46  FOOD   STUDY 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  diseases  are  most  frequently  carried  by  water? 

2.  Why  is  the  water  from  shallow  wells  often  dangerous  ? 

3.  How  should  such  wells  be  protected  ? 

4.  Why  is  deep  well  water  usually  safer  ? 

5.  How  is  the  question  of  sewage  disposal  bound  up  with  the 
question  of  a  safe  water  supply  ? 


VIII 
USE   OF   WATER   IN   COOKING 

POACHED  EGGS 
A.    Class  Experiment.     SOLUBILITY  OF  EGG  WHITE. 

1.  Cut  a  small  piece  of  uncooked  egg  white  with  a 
pair  of  scissors.     Shake  the  egg  white  with  some  cold 
water.     Filter.     Has  any  of  the  egg  white  dissolved  ? 
Find  out  by  testing  as  follows : 

a.  Boil  some  of  the  filtered  water. 
What  happens  ? 

b.  Add  nitric  acid  to  a  second  portion  and  boil. 
Cool,  and  add  ammonia.     Note  color  given. 

c.  Try  the  effect  of  the  acid  and  ammonia  on  some 
of  the  egg  white  itself.     Egg  white  contains 
large  amounts  of  protein,  and  protein  gives  the 
color  with  the  acid  and  ammonia. 

2.  Repeat  the  experiment,  but  use  water  which  is  nearly 
boiling  to  shake  with  the  egg. 

E.    Class  Experiment. 

THE  CORRECT  TEMPERATURE  FOR  POACHING  EGGS. 

1.  Drop  one  teaspoon  of  egg  white  into  a  pan  of  water 
which  is  at  about  150°  F. 


EGGS  47 

2.  Repeat,  but  have  the  water  boiling  hard  and  let  it 
continue  boiling  for  a  moment  or  two. 

3.  Repeat,  but  have  the  water  just  below  boiling. 
Why  does  the  egg  white  spread  in  one,  and  break  up 

in  another?    In  which  is  the  temperature  too  high  to 
give  the  cooked  egg  a  good  consistency? 

C.  POACH  AN  EGG.  From  the  results  obtained  in 
the  previous  experiment,  account  for  the  temperature  of 
the  water  suggested  in  the  following  recipe.  While  it 
is  desirable,  the  muffin  ring  is  not  essential.  Serve  on 
toast.  What  will  happen  if  the  water  used  is  too  cold? 
Too  hot? 

DROPPED  EGGS.     (Poached) 

Have  ready  a  shallow  pan  two-thirds  full  of  boiling, 
salted  water,  allowing  one-half  tablespoon  of  salt  to  one 
quart  of  water.  Put  two  or  three  buttered  muffin  rings 
in  the  water.  Break  each  egg  separately  into  a  cup,  and 
carefully  slip  into  a  muffin  ring.  The  water  should  cover 
the  eggs.  When  there  is  a  film  over  the  top,  and  the  white 
is  firm,  carefully  remove  with  a  buttered  skimmer  to  cir- 
cular pieces  of  buttered  toast,  and  let  each  person  season 
his  own  egg  with  butter,  salt,  and  pepper. 

From  the  "Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."  By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

EGGS 

The  United  States  government  bulletin  on  eggs  tells  us 
that  "perhaps  no  article  of  diet  of  animal  origin  is  more 
commonly  eaten  in  all  countries  or  served  in  a  greater 
variety  of  ways."  But  eggs  are  even  more  interesting 
when  it  is  remembered  that,  like  milk,  they  are  a  complete 
food  intended  for  the  sole  nourishment  of  the  young 


48  FOOD   STUDY 

animal.  They  must,  of  course,  contain  everything  that  is 
needed  for  growth.  Even  after  what  has  been  said  about 
the  need  for  water,  it  may  be  a  surprise  to  learn  that  the 
edible  portion  of  eggs  is  about  three-fourths  water,  averag- 
ing about  seventy-four  per  cent.  The  amount  of  protein 
present  is  high,  fourteen  and  a  half  per  cent;  and  this, 
together  with  the  large  amount  of  fat,  ten  and  a  half 
per  cent,  makes  eggs  rank  with  milk  and  meat  in  the 
diet.  Then  the  ideal  form  of  the  iron  and  phosphorus 
present  in  the  mineral  matter  adds  to  the  value  of  eggs 
from  the  dietetic  standpoint,  and  they  are  probably  even 
better  building  material  than  meat.  This  nutriment  is 
not  divided  evenly  between  the  white  and  yolk,  for  the 
white  contains  more  water  and  less  protein  and  mineral 
matter  than  the  yolk ;  and  practically  all  the  fat  is  found 
in  the  latter.  This  highly  nutritious  yolk  is  intended  to  be 
the  first  source  of  food  for  the  embryo  chick.  This  embryo 
can  usually  be  seen  as  a  tiny  dark  speck  lying  close  to  the 
yolk.  The  white  is  food  used  at  a  later  stage. 

The  problem  in  buying  eggs  is  to  obtain  them  fresh, 
and  the  term  fresh  is  by  no  means  the  same  as  new-laid. 
The  new-laid  egg  is,  of  course,  the  most  desirable  grade, 
but  often  can  be  had  only  at  an  exorbitant  price  quite 
beyond  the  pocketbook  of  the  average  person.  Eggs, 
like  other  foods,  are  affected  by  bacteria.  The  shells  are 
a  partial  protection,  but  since  they  are  porous,  bacteria 
can  enter  and  soon  begin  the  process  of  decay.  The 
earliest  change  is  mainly  in  flavor.  Later,  the  membrane 
which  surrounds  the  yolk  is  partially  absorbed  and  it  be- 
comes difficult  to  separate  the  yolk  from  the  white.  The 
white  can  never  be  beaten  stiff  and  dry  if  part  of  the  yolk 
is  mixed  with  it.  An  egg  kept  too  long  in  cold  storage  often 
will  have  a  white  which  will  not  beat  properly. 

As  eggs  do  not  keep  long  under  usual  conditions  and  as 


EGGS  49 

hens  do  not  lay  uniformly  throughout  the  year,  many 
methods  of  preserving  eggs  have  been  tried.  The  most 
successful  method  for  home  use  is  a  water-glass  solution. 
This  substance,  which  is  a  silicate  of  potassium  or  sodium, 
or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  can  be  bought  as  a  syrupy  liquid 
at  a  few  cents  a  pound  and  diluted  with  ten  times  its  volume 
of  water.  The  water  used  should  be  pure  and  is  better 
boiled  and  cooled  before  mixing.  The  diluted  water-glass 
is  poured  over  the  eggs  so  as  to  cover  them  completely,  and 
then  they  must  be  put  into  a  cool  place.  This  method  is 
not  only  the  easiest  to  use,  but  also  the  one  that  keeps  the 
eggs  best  and  with  least  disagreeable  flavor.  Eggs  laid 
in  April,  May,  and  June  are  the  best  to  use  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  they  seem  to  keep  most  satisfactorily.  The  best 
method  of  all  for  keeping  eggs  is  cold  storage,  and  such  eggs 
in  certain  seasons  are  about  all  that  are  on  the  market. 
Eggs  which  have  been  kept  in  this  way  will  rattle  some- 
what when  shaken,  because  of  the  evaporation  which 
may  have  gone  on,  and  yet  be  fresh  enough  for  use. 

Eggs  should  be  washed  before  use.  As  the  mucilagi- 
nous substance  on  the  outside  of  the  shell  helps  to  render 
it  less  porous,  it  is  better  not  to  wash  the  shell  until  the 
egg  is  to  be  used. 

Eggs  are  becoming  costly,  and  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
this  in  their  use.  Many  recipes  which  call  for  eggs  for 
thickening  can  be  modified  so  that  flour  or  starch  may  be 
substituted  for  all  or  at  least  some  of  the  eggs,  and  baking 
powder  may  take  the  place  of  the  egg  used  for  leavening. 

For  most  people  eggs  are  an  easily  and  completely 
digested  food.  Sometimes  an  uncooked  egg  swallowed 
whole  causes  disturbance,  because  it  has  not  sufficient 
flavor  to  start  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices,  and  since 
the  egg  is  not  broken  up,  what  ferment  is  present  cannot 
well  get  at  it.  A  raw  egg  beaten  up  with  a  little  milk  is 


50  FOOD   STUDY 

much  less  apt  to  cause  trouble.  Eggs  cooked  in  any  way 
are  very  completely  digested,  and  the  ordinary  person  does 
not  have  to  consider  the  small  differences  in  digestibility 
which  result  from  different  methods  of  cooking.  Even 
hard-boiled  eggs,  if  they  are  not  swallowed  in  lumps 
instead  of  being  properly  masticated,  can  be  included  in 
this  statement.  A  soft-cooked  egg  is,  however,  more 
acceptable  to  most  people  than  one  that  is  hard-boiled. 

REFEKENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  87.     "Food  Value  of  Eggs." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  103.     "Preserving  Eggs." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  122.     "Selling  Eggs  by  Weight."     "Flavor 

of  Eggs." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128.     "Eggs  and  their  Use  as  Food." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  190.     "Cost  of  Eggs  in  Winter." 
Cornell  Reading  Course.     "Preservation  of  Foods,"  Pt.  Ill,  pp. 

299, 300. 

Connecticut  Exp.  Station  Bulletin,  No.  55.     "Infection  and  Preser- 
vation of  Eggs." 

Office  of  Exp.  Station  Bulletin,  No.  43.     "Comparison  of  Digesti- 
bility of  Potatoes  and  Eggs." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  can  the  freshness  of  an  egg  be   determined  before 
breaking  ? 

2.  Why  does  an  egg  become  stale  ? 

3.  Are  cold-storage  eggs  good  food  ? 

4.  What  is  the  best  method  of  preserving  eggs  at  home  ? 

5.  Why  should  eggs  that  are  to  be  kept  for  some  time  not  be 
washed  before  being  put  away  ? 

6.  Why  must  precaution  be  taken  against  putting  eggs  away 
near  strong-smelling  foods  ? 

7.  Why  should  eggs  be  washed  before  breaking  ? 

8.  What  use  is  made  of  egg  shells  ? 

9.  How  many  eggs  of  average  size  in  a  pound  ? 


USE  OF  WATER  IN  COOKING  51 

10.  What  were  the  maximum  and  minimum  prices  of  eggs  during 
the  past  year  ?    At  what  season  of  the  year  are  eggs  most  expensive  ? 
Cheapest? 

11.  Why  are  eggs  valuable  as  food? 


IX 

USE   OF   WATER   IN   COOKING 

CEREAL  BREAKFAST  FOODS 

A.  Class  Experiment. 

THE  RELATION  OF  SURFACE  TO  EVAPORATION. 

1.  Put  equal  amounts  of  water  into  two  saucepans,  one 
much  larger  than  the  other,  and  heat  both  the  same 
length  of  time,  until  the  water  in  one  is  about  half 
gone.     Cool  and  measure  roughly  the  amount  of 
water  left  in  each.    To  what,  besides  time,  is  the  rate 
of  evaporation  proportional  ?    Would  you  increase  or 
decrease  the  amount  of  water  to  be  used  in  cooking 
a  small  amount  of  cereal  in  a  large  pan? 

2.  Repeat  the  experiment,   but    with    the    saucepans 
closely  covered.     Is  there  any  difference?     Explain 
the  result. 

B.  PREPARE  CEREAL  WITH  FRUIT. 

1.  Add  gradually  two  tablespoons  of  wheatena  to  a  cup 
and  a  quarter  of  actively  boiling  water,  to  which  one- 
sixth  of  a  teaspoon  of  salt  has  been  added.  After  ten 
minutes  cooking  over  the  direct  flame,  finish  over  hot 
water.  This  will  probably  take  thirty  minutes.  A 
few  moments  before  the  cereal  is  done,  add  the  meat 
of  five  dates  cut  very  fine.  Serve  with  sugar  and 
cream. 


52 


FOOD   STUDY 


U&Doportmert  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experment  Stations 

AC.True.  Director 


rrepGrea  by 

ORTW 


C.ELANGWOR1... 
Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigation 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

omD     E%^?  R^     mrm     •rarpueivoiw 

Water 


Fat          Carbohydrate*        Ash 


CORN 


Fat:  4.3 


'ater:10.8 


Water:  10, 
FVotein:1 


WHEAT 


•at:1.7 


AA15-W    ""-l™-'73*  Carbohydrates., ^    5^^^ t.Q 

FUEL    VALUED  FUEL    VALUCT 

BUCKWHEAT 

ISOOcALDRCS         Rrxjtan:10.0L^rWater:12.6         1750 
PER  POUND       ~   .   ,    __JH^Fat:2.2 


:ALORIES        Water:  1 
Protein? 


RICE 


1720  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Car 


•:10^ 
12-2          Fua    VALUE: 


1720   CALORtt 
PCR  POUND 


1750  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS 


CEREAL  BREAKFAST  FOODS        53 

2.  Repeat  (1)  to  the  point  where  the  cereal  has  been 
cooked  over  the  direct  flame,  but  use  only  five-sixths 
of  a  cup  of  water.  Then,  instead  of  finishing  over 
water,  place  it  in  a  fireless  cooker  or  hay  box. 

C.    Class  Experiments.     CEREALS. 

1.  Test  cereals  for  both  starch  and  protein. 

2.  Examine  rice-  and  oat-starch  under  the  micro- 
scope.    Notice  size,  shape,  and  any  apparent 
markings. 

CEREAL  BREAKFAST  FOODS 

Cereals  are  cultivated  grasses,  but  the  seeds  of  these 
grasses  are  often  called  cereals.  Sometimes,  the  term 
includes  all  products  of  cereals  such  as  flour  and  macaroni 
as  well  as  the  grains  themselves.  Common  usage,  how- 
ever, often  makes  the  word  cereal  synonymous  with  break- 
fast food.  The  seeds  of  the  cultivated  grasses  are  the  part 
of  the  plant  used,  because  they  are  packed  with  nutriment 
for  the  embryo.  The  grains  commonly  used  for  breakfast*1 
food  are  wheat,  oats,  corn,  rice,  and,  occasionally,  barley. 
Rice  contains  a  larger  amount  of  starch  than  the  others, 
but  little  fiber,  and  it  is  on  this  account  easily  digested. 
Of  the  three  grains  most  commonly  used  for  breakfast 
foods,  wheat,  oats,  and  corn,  oats  furnishes  most  protein 
and  fat,  and  has  the  highest  calorie  value  *  per  pound. 
Wheat,  however,  does  not  differ  very  greatly  in  nutritive 
value  and  contains  less  fiber  and  so  is  more  easily  digested. 
Corn  has  a  very  tough  fiber  and  ranks  below  the  other  two 
in  calorie  value.  All  these  differences  are  comparatively 
small,  and  we  can  rank  cereals  together  in  their  place  in 
the  diet,  with  the  following  average  composition : 

*  The  calorie  value  of  a  food  is  the  amount  of  energy,  meas- 
ured in  calories,  which  a  given  food  furnishes  to  the  body. 


54  FOOD   STUDY 

Water 10-12  per  cent. 

Protein       10-12  per  cent. 

Carbohydrates 65-75  per  cent. 

Fat 2-8  per  cent. 

Mineral  Matter 2  per  cent. 

These  figures  are  for  the  raw  grains.  Mushes  and 
porridge  contain  a  great  deal  of  water.  Cooked  oatmeal 
contains  nearly  eighty-five  per  cent  of  water,  but  shredded 
wheat  and  the  flaked  breakfast  foods  have  practically  the 
same  composition  as  the  original  grains. 

The  cost  of  breakfast  foods  varies  somewhat  with  the 
cereal  from  which  they  are  made,  the  cost  of  those  made 
from  corn  being  least,  those  from  oats  next,  while  wheat  is 
the  most  expensive.  Cost,  however,  differs  even  more 
with  the  amount  of  preparation  that  has  already  been 
made.  From  this  point  of  view,  breakfast  foods  may  be 
divided  into  four  classes.  In  the  first  are  foods  like  oat- 
meal or  cracked  wheat  in  which  the  grain  has  been  husked 
but  not  cooked.  Next,  comes  the  class  of  partially  cooked 
foods.  These  have  been  steamed  until  they  are  somewhat 
softened  and  then,  if  they  are  to  be  put  on  the  market  as 
flakes,  they  are  passed  between  hot  rollers  which  flatten 
the  kernels.  Rolled  oats  is  an  example  of  this  class.  The 
third  class  is  composed  of  those  which  are  sold  ready  to 
eat,  as  grape  nuts  or  shredded  wheat.  Sometimes  malt  is 
used  in  the  process  of  manufacture  and  is  supposed  to 
change  the  starch  into  sugar  and  so  start  the  process  of 
digestion.  In  most  breakfast  foods  which  are  malted,  not 
much  change  in  the  starch  will  be  found  to  have  occurred, 
and  since,  for  the  healthy  person,  it  is  of  little  moment 
whether  this  change  has  occurred  or  not,  this  fourth  class, 
called  predigested,  is  not  of  great  importance.  Breakfast 
foods  which  belong  to  the  third  class  cost  much  more  per 
pound  than  those  in  the  first  class,  because  more  trouble 


CEREAL  BREAKFAST  FOODS        55 

has  been  taken  in  the  preparation.  The  advantage  to  the 
housewife  is  in  the  saving  of  time  necessary  to  prepare  the 
food.  Foods  of  the  first  class  need  to  be  cooked  many 
hours  in  order  to  render  them  thoroughly  digestible.  This 
is  more  or  less  trouble  even  on  a  coal  or  wood  stove,  and  on 
a  gas  stove  is  an  expensive  process.  Cereals  can,  however, 
be  easily  and  cheaply  prepared  in  a  fireless  cooker,  and  if 
both  cost  and  attention  are  to  be  considered,  this  is  the 
method  of  preparation  which  should  be  chosen.  The  foods 
of  the  second  class  need,  usually,  to  be  cooked  about  twice 
as  long  as  the  time  given  on  the  package.  The  manufac- 
turer, in  order  to  attract  custom,  cuts  the  necessary  time 
of  preparation  down  to  a  minimum. 

Many  of  the  breakfast  foods  may  be  purchased  both 
in  bulk  and  package.  The  advantage  of  the  package  is 
greater  surety  of  cleanliness.  Most  of  the  milling  is 
carried  on  under  excellent  sanitary  conditions.  The 
package  assures  us  that  the  goods  have  come  to  us  in  the 
same  condition  as  that  in  which  they  left  the  mill.  Bulk 
goods  are  often  protected  neither  from  dust  nor  insects. 
As,  however,  the  uncooked  cereals  sold  in  bulk  are 
thoroughly  sterilized  in  cooking,  this  protection  is  far  less 
necessary  than  in  the  case  of  such  foods  as  bread,  which  is 
eaten  as  bought. 

Since  cereals  do  not  keep  well,  it  is  better  to  buy  them 
only  in  moderate  amounts.  There  is  often  considerable 
saving,  however,  in  buying  even  two  packages  instead  of 
one. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  105.  "Cereal  Breakfast  Foods." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  237.  "Cereal  Breakfast  Foods." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  249.  "Cereal  Breakfast  Foods." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  316.  "Cooking  Cereal  Foods." 


56  FOOD   STUDY 

Fanners'  Bulletin  No.  298.     "The  Fireless  Cooker." 

The  Exp.  Station  Bulletin  No.  200.     "  Course  in  Cereal  Foods." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  kinds  of  grain  you  know. 

2.  How  does  the  English  use  of  the  word  "corn"  differ  from  the 
American  ? 

3.  Give  illustrations  of  the  different  groups  of  breakfast  foods  on 
the  market. 

a.  Uncooked  grains. 

b.  Partly  cooked. 

c.  Ready  to  eat. 

d.  Predigested. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  different 
groups  ? 

5.  Is  the  greater  cost  of  package  foods  justified? 

6.  Why  is  it  well  to  keep  cereals  in  glass  jars  tightly  covered  ? 

7.  Why  are  cereals  so  important  as  food  ? 

8.  How  can  the  "skin"  which  sometimes  forms  on  top  of  a  cereal 
while  it  is  cooking  be  prevented  ? 

9.  Why  will  soaking  the  grains  for  an  hour  or  so  beforehand  shorten 
the  needed  time  for  cooking  ? 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  a  fireless  cooker  in  preparing 
cereals  ? 


STARCH 

APPLE  TAPIOCA 
BOILED  RICE 

A.    PREPARE  APPLE  TAPIOCA. 

1|  tbsp.  Minute  tapioca 

£  c.  water 

A  pinch  of  salt 

Cook  together  in  a  double  boiler  until  transparent  (about 
fifteen  minutes).  Pare  and  core  a  sour  apple.  Put  in  a 
buttered  baking  dish,  and  fill  the  cavity  in  the  apple  with 


STARCH  57 

sugar.    Pour  the  tapioca  over  it,  and  bake  in  a  moderate 
oven  until  the  apple  is  soft.     Serve  with  sugar  and  cream. 

B.    RICE. 

Wash  the  rice  thoroughly  in  a  strainer  in  a  bowl  of  water, 
rubbing  the  rice  between  the  hands.  Change  the  water, 
until  it  remains  clear.  Cook  by  the  following  methods: 

1.  Gradually  sprinkle  two  tablespoons  of  rice  into  two 
cups  of  rapidly  boiling  water  with  one-half  teaspoon 
of  salt  added. 

2.  Cook  two  tablespoons  of  rice  in  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of 
boiling,  salted  water  for  five  minutes.     Finish  cook- 
ing in  a  double  boiler.     (Why  is  less  water  used  ?) 

3.  Cook  two  tablespoons  of  rice  in  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of 
boiling,  salted  water  for  five  minutes.    Then  place  in 
a  mold  and  steam. 

In  all  cases  cook  until  the  rice  is  soft. 

a.  Compare  the  time  used  to  cook  by  the  different 
methods. 

b.  Compare  the  appearance  of  the  kernels  as  a  result 
of  the  different  treatments. 

c.  Note  also  the  relative  amounts  of  rice  before  and 
after  cooking. 

STARCH 

Starch  occurs  in  the  cells  of  all  plants  as  tiny  white 
granules,  but  the  size,  shape,  and  appearance  of  these 
differ  with  the  kind  of  plant  from  which  they  are  taken. 
A  plant  manufactures  sugar  from  the  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
air  and  from  water,  and  this  sugar  is  used  as  nutriment  for 
the  plant,  being  dissolved  in  the  juice  or  sap  and  circulating 
through  it.  But  since  the  plant  has  to  store  some  of  this 
nutriment  for  future  use,  it  manufactures  starch  from  some 
of  the  sugar.  Starch  has  the  advantage  over  sugar  that 


58  FOOD   STUDY 

it  is  not  soluble  in  water.  The  material  is  carried  into  the 
cell  as  a  solution  of  sugar  which  can  pass  readily  through 
the  cell  wall  and  is  then  turned  into  granules  of  starch. 
When  the  starch  is  finally  used  as  the  plant  food,  this 
process  is  reversed,  the  granules  change  into  sugar  again, 
and  can  then  pass  out  through  the  cell  wall. 

Scientists  do  not  agree  entirely  in  regard  to  the  construc- 
tion of  starch  granules,  but  they  believe  that  they  are 
made  up  of  at  least  two  kinds  of  starch  which  are  some- 
times named  red  and  blue  amylose.  Amylose  is  merely 
the  scientific  name  for  starch,  and  the  names  red  and 
blue  are  given  to  the  two  kinds  not  at  all  because  of  their 
color,  for  they  are  both  white,  but  because  of  the  colors 
which  they  turn  with  iodine.  The  starch  inside  the 
granules  and  composing  the  greater  part  of  the  grains  is 
blue  amylose,  easily  digested.  Its  outer  covering  is  red 
amylose,  much  more  difficult  of  digestion  and  impervious 
to  cold  liquids.  If  the  starch  grain  is  heated  in  water,  it 
begins  to  swell,  till  its  outer  covering  is  stretched  thin  and 
allows  liquids  to  pass  readily  through  it.  In  this  form 
digestive  juices  can  get  at  the  starch  inside  to  digest  it; 
and,  therefore,  cooked  starch  is  more  digestible  than  raw. 

Starch  granules  found  in  potato  and  arrowroot  seem  to 
be  made  up  of  only  these  two  kinds  of  starch,  but  those  in 
cereals  seem  to  contain  a  small  amount  of  a  third  kind 
called  rose  amylose.  This  is  more  difficult  of  digestion 
than  is  either  of  the  other  kinds,  but  with  long  boiling  can 
be  made  to  change  into  blue  amylose.  As  it  seems  to 
be  rather  hard  to  cook  the  starch  granules  when  they  are 
shut  up  in  the  cell  walls  of  the  seed,  this  may  be  the  reason 
why  cereals  take  such  a  long  time  to  cook.  Corn  starch  is, 
of  course,  a  cereal  starch,  and  ordinary  wheat  flour,  too, 
contains  an  abundance  of  starch;  but  in  grinding  the 
grains,  the  cell  walls  are  broken  and  so  there  is  not  the 


Rice  Starch 


Wheat  Starch 


STARCH  GRAINS,  MAGNIFIED  MANY  TIMES 

From  Leach's  "Food  Inspection  and  Analysis." 


STARCH 


59 


same  difficulty  in  getting  at  the  starch  for  cooking.  If, 
during  the  cooking  of  starch,  as,  for  example,  in  the  cooking 
of  oatmeal,  the  surface  is  left  exposed  so  that  the  top  dries, 
the  starch  is  changed  into  a  hard  skin  which  is  exceedingly 
difficult  of  digestion.  If  the  oatmeal  is  stirred  occasion- 
ally and  kept  covered  so  that  the  steam  is  confined  in  the 
space  above  the  surface,  no  such  change  occurs. 

When  a  vegetable  food  containing  much  starch,  such  as 
potatoes  or  cereals,  is  cooked,  the  starch  granules  swell  in 
the  process  until  they  burst  most  of  the  cell  walls  of  the 
plant. 


CHANGES  OP  STARCH  GRAINS  IN  COOKING 

a,  cells  and  starch  grains  in  a  raw  potato  ;  6,  in  a  partially 
cooked  potato ;  c,  in  a  thoroughly  boiled  potato. 

Starch  is  not  soluble  in  cold  water,  but,  when  heated,  the 
granules  finally  break  down  and  gelatinize.  This  is  only 
partial  solution.  When  a  substance  really  dissolves,  it 
disappears  entirely  from  view,  as  sugar  does  in  water.  It 
may  impart  a  color  to  the  solution,  but  it  does  not  render 
it  opaque.  Because  starch  does  not  dissolve,  it  cannot 
pass  through  the  lining  wall  of  the  intestines  and  so  must 
be  changed  in  digestion  before  it  can  be  absorbed.  A 
ferment  called  ptyalin  is  found  in  the  saliva,  which  is 
capable  of  acting  on  starch  and  changing  it  to  sugar. 
There  is  an  intermediate  stage  in  this  action,  for  the  starch 


60  FOOD   STUDY 

is  first  changed  into  dextrine.  Dextrine  is  whitish  like 
starch,  but  with  iodine  turns  a  beautiful  wine  red.  Unlike 
starch,  it  is  soluble  in  cold  water.  When  starchy  food  is 
chewed  saliva  is  mixed  with  it,  and  as  the  food  lies  in  the 
fundus  (or  middle  part)  of  the  stomach  the  ptyalin  has  a 
chance  to  act  on  it.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  this 
action  stopped  as  soon  as  the  food  reached  the  stomach,  for 
ptyalin  cannot  act  in  gastric  juice,  but  it  is  now  known 
that  this  change  can  go  on  for  about  two  hours  before  the 
gastric  juice  is  so  mixed  with  the  food  that  the  action  is 
stopped.  Therefore  it  seems  a  somewhat  important 
matter  that  such  food  should  be  chewed  thoroughly  and 
mixed  with  saliva  and  not  swallowed  whole  or  washed 
down  with  liquids.  In  the  stomach,  however,  not  all  of 
the  starch  is  digested.  Probably  most  of  it  does  not  go 
beyond  the  dextrine  stage. 

In  the  intestines  there  is  another  ferment,  sometimes 
called  amylopsin,  which,  like  the  ptyalin,  can  digest  starch. 
We  are,  then,  apparently,  well  equipped  to  digest  starch, 
and  this  is  fortunate,  for  starch  forms  a  large  proportion 
of  the  nutrients  of  our  diet. 

Dextrine  may  also  be  formed  by  heating  dry  starch  very 
hot,  at  least  to  320°  F.  It  is  formed  somewhat  in  toast, 
and  in  the  crust  of  bread,  and  in  browned  flour,  since  in 
these  cases  the  starch  is  exposed  to  intense  heat.  Some 
breakfast  foods  are  partially  dextrinized  and  this  is  sup- 
posed to  make  them  more  digestible.  In  reality,  so  small 
a  percentage  of  the  starch  is  changed  that  they  are  really 
not  very  different. 

Browned  flour  does  not  possess  the  thickening  power  of 
ordinary  flour  because  the  dextrine  in  it  dissolves  instead 
of  gelatinizing.  Since  heating  with  acids  will  dextrinize 
starch  at  a  much  lower  temperature,  and  only  a  few  drops 
of  acid  are  necessary  to  bring  this  about,  it  is  sometimes 


J^[^ 


Pea  Starch 


Bean  Starch 


Buckwheat  Starch  Potato  Starch 

STARCH  GRAINS,  MAGNIFIED  MANY  TIMES 

From  Leach's  "Food  Inspection  and  Analysis." 


STARCH  61 

possible  to  obtain  this  result  when  it  is  unexpected  and 
undesired.  When  a  lemon  filling  for  a  pie  or  a  boiled 
dressing  that  is  made  with  flour  are  cooked  too  long  or 
with  too  much  acid,  they  may  grow  thinner  instead  of 
thicker  as  the  cooking  continues.  So,  also,  if  creamed 
oysters  are  kept  hot  too  long  a  thick  white  sauce  may 
become  very  thin. 

REFERENCE 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Exp.  Station  Bulletin  No.  202.  "The 
Digestibility  of  Different  Kinds  of  Starches  ...  as  Affected 
by  Cooking." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  does  a  plant  obtain  the  necessary  elements  to  make 
starch  ?    How  does  it  take  in  water  ?    How  does  it  get  carbon  ? 

2.  What  purpose  has  the  plant  in  manufacturing  starch,  and  in 
what  parts  of  plants  would  you  expect  to  find  the  largest  stores  of  it  ? 

3.  How  is  rice  grown,  and  where  do  we  obtain  our  largest  supply? 

4.  What  is  the  composition  of  rice?    Why  is  it  not  used  as  an 
exclusive  diet  ? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  price  of  different  grades  of  rice,  and 
to  what  is  this  due  ? 

7.  Why  not  bake  rice  as  we  do  potatoes  ? 


62  FOOD   STUDY 

XI 
RICE   AND   INDIAN   PUDDINGS 

COST  OF  BREAKFAST  FOODS 

A.  PREPARE  RICE  PUDDING. 

£  c,  steamed  rice  1  tbsp.  sugar 

\  c.  milk  \  tsp.  salt 

\  egg  2  tbsp.  raisins 

Scald  the  milk  before  using  it.  Beat  the  egg  with  salt, 
add  sugar,  and  pour  the  scalded  milk  over  the  mixture. 
Put  into  a  buttered  baking  dish  with  rice  and  raisins. 
The  raisins  may  be  omitted  and  a  little  grated  rind  of  a 
lemon  used ;  or  cinnamon,  ginger,  or  nutmeg.  Molasses 
or  maple  syrup  may  be  substituted  for  the  sugar.  Or : 

PREPARE  INDIAN  PUDDING. 

Use  one  tablespoon  of  Indian  meal  to  one  cup  of  milk 
and  other  ingredients  in  proportion. 

5  c.  scalded  milk  \  c.  molasses 

J  c.  Indian  meal  1  tsp.  salt 

1  tsp.  ginger 

Pour  the  hot  milk  over  the  meal,  and  cook  twenty  minutes 
in  a  double  boiler.  Add  the  other  ingredients,  and  bake 
very  slowly  in  a  buttered  dish. 

B.  CRISPED  CEREALS. 

Examine  and  taste  a  "  ready-to-eat "  cereal  as  it  is  pur- 
chased. Place  a  little  of  it  in  a  pan  and  put  it  for  a  moment 
in  an  oven ;  compare  with  the  portion  not  heated. 

C.  COST  OF  BREAKFAST  FOODS. 

Take  packages  of  well-known  cereals.  Determine  how 
much  of  each  must  be  used  for  one  serving,  then  how  many 


CELLULOSE 


63 


servings  each  package  will  give.     Calculate  the  cost  of  a 
serving  of  each,  and  fill  in  the  following  table. 


NAME  OF  CEREAL 

COST 
OP  PACKAGE 

AMOUNT 
OF  ONE 
SERVING 

NUMBER  OF 
SERVINGS 

IN  A 

PACKAGE 

COST 

PER 

SERVING 

COST 

PER 

OUNCE 

CELLULOSE 

Cellulose  is  the  fiber  which  makes  up  part  of  the  frame- 
work of  vegetable  foods.  It  has  the  same  chemical  com- 
position as  starch,  but  is  much  less  soluble,  and  human 
food  contains  only  a  small  percentage  of  it.  It  is  a  form  of 
carbohydrate  which  is  of  less  importance  to  mankind  than 
to  animals.  While  animals  have  ferments  in  the  digestive 
tract  which  are  capable  of  digesting  cellulose,  none  with 
this  power  are  secreted  by  man.  Nevertheless,  the  scien- 
tists find  that  man  digests  some  cellulose.  This  is  one 
of  the  beneficial  acts  of  bacteria  present  in  the  intestines. 
These  bacteria  are  capable  of  acting  on  tender  cellulose 
and  changing  it,  perhaps  into  sugars  and  organic  acids, 
in  which  forms  it  can  be  absorbed  and  burned  as  fuel  to 
furnish  the  body  with  heat  and  muscular  energy.  Un- 
doubtedly some  of  the  breaking  down  of  the  cellulose 
proceeds  further  than  this,  and  hydrogen  and  other  gases 
are  produced  which  have  no  nutritive  value. 


64  FOOD   STUDY 

But  not  all  forms  of  cellulose  are  easily  enough  broken 
down  to  have  such  changes  occur.  Cotton  is  a  form 
of  cellulose  which  would  be  absolutely  without  nutritive 
value.  Such  tender  cellulose  as  is  found  in  the  cell  walls 
of  seeds  like  the  cereals,  and  in  vegetables,  especially  when 
young,  is  more  capable  of  being  digested.  Still,  it  is 
probable  that  the  less  cellulose  there  is  present  in  a  vege- 
table food,  the  more  digestible  it  is.  This  is  probably  the 
reason  that  rice  is  so  easily  digested,  for  it  contains  less 
cellulose  than  the  other  grains. 

Boiling  in  water  does  not  change  real  cellulose  at  all, 
just  as  cotton  clothes  are  not  changed  by  boiling.  But  the 
cellulose  cell  walls  of  a  plant  are  stiffened  with  other  re- 
lated substances ;  for  one,  with  the  pectose  which  changes 
to  pectin.  Cooking  dissolves  out  some  of  these  inter- 
cellular substances  and  also  hydrates  the  starch,  and  so 
cooked  vegetables  are  softened.  Then,  as  has  already  been 
explained,  by  thorough  cooking  the  cellulose  walls  may 
be  ruptured  by  the  swelling  of  the  starch  grains  within  the 
cells  and  so  the  contents  exposed  without  its  being  neces- 
sary first  to  digest  the  cell  walls. 

Some  authorities  believe  that  inert  particles  like  cellu- 
lose are  sufficiently  rough  to  stimulate  the  intestines  to 
peristaltic  action,  that  is,  to  movements  which  hasten  the 
passage  of  food  through  the  intestines  and  which  are  an 
aid  in  combating  constipation.  But,  since  foods  are  not 
laxative  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  cellulose  they 
contain,  others  believe  this  action  is  due  rather  to  the 
stimulus  of  certain  salts  which  occur  largely  in  the  husks 
of  the  cereal ;  and  that  it  is  due  to  the  presence  of  these 
salts  and  not  to  the  larger  amount  of  cellulose  in  them  that 
such  articles  of  food  as  cracked  wheat  and  graham  bread 
are  more  laxative  than  those  cereals  which  have  undergone 
more  extensive  manufacturing  processes. 


MINERAL  AND  ORGANIC  SALTS  65 


MINERAL  AND  ORGANIC  SALTS 

Mineral  matter  occurs  not  only  in  the  teeth  and  bones, 
but  in  every  tissue  of  the  body  and  in  all  the  fluids.  It  is 
necessary  in  all  the  vital  processes.  The  principal  mineral 
elements  in  the  body  are  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  sodium, 
potassium,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  iodine,  fluorine,  silicon, 
and  sulphur.  These  occur  as  compounds,  forming  both 
mineral  and  organic  salts.  Unlike  carbohydrates,  fats, 
and  proteins,  mineral  salts  are  not  changed  in  digestion 
nor  are  they  oxidized,  and  so  they  do  not  furnish  the  body 
with  energy.  When  organic  matter  is  burned,  these  salts 
remain  unconsumed  as  the  ash. 

Mineral  matter  is  present  in  all  the  digestive  juices  and 
plays  its  part  in  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  foods. 
Mineral  matter  is  dissolved  in  the  blood  and  regulates  its 
specific  gravity  and  its  alkalinity.  It  is  found  in  all 
tissues,  where  it  is  concerned  in  metabolism.*  Mineral 
matter,  too,  probably  stimulates  the  contractions  which 
cause  the  heart  to  beat. 

Since  man  excretes  every  day  a  large  amount  of  mineral 
matter,  this  loss  must  be  replaced.  The  necessary  amount 
of  mineral  matter  is  found  in  an  ordinary  mixed  diet. 
Common  salt,  sodium  chloride,  is  the  only  mineral  which 
is  added  to  food,  but  it  is  probable  that  there  would  be 
enough  of  this  furnished  in  the  food  of  a  mixed  diet.  In 
fact,  it  is  possible  that  large  quantities  of  salt  are  really 
bad  for  us  rather  than  helpful.  People,  like  the  Esqui- 
maux, who  are  unaccustomed  to  its  use  easily  detect  the 
addition  of  an  exceedingly  small  amount  and  dislike  it,  but 
those  who  are  habituated  to  its  use  crave  it.  Salt  seems 
to  accentuate  flavor. 

*  Metabolism  includes  all  the  processes  which  food  undergoes 
after  it  is  digested  and  absorbed  and  before  it  is  excreted. 


66  FOOD   STUDY 

In  the  metabolism  of  proteins,  mineral  acids  are  formed 
which  must  be  neutralized  by  such  basic  substances  as 
sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood.  As  these  basic 
elements  are  abundant  in  vegetables  and  fruits,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  diet  should  contain  liberal  amounts  of  both 
and  not  consist  too  largely  of  meat.  The  modern  diet  is 
likely  not  to  be  well  balanced  in  this  respect,  because  it 
consists  of  liberal  amounts  of  meat,  fats,  and  sugar,  all  of 
which  contain  insignificant  amounts  of  mineral  salts. 

At  first  thought  it  seems  strange  that  fruits  should  be 
added  to  prevent  over-acidity  when  fruits  themselves  are 
acid;  but  the  acids  present  are  organic  acids,  such  as 
citric,  malic,  tartaric,  and  oxalic.  Some  of  these  are 
decomposition  products  of  starch  and  are  oxidized  by  the 
body  to  produce  energy  and  are  then  given  off  as  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  just  as  starch  is  metabolized.  Mineral 
acids  cannot  be  oxidized  in  the  body  and  must  be  neutral- 
ized into  salts  and  then  excreted,  and  that  is  why  they 
require  basic  elements  with  which  to  unite  to  become  salts. 

It  is  important  to  remember  the  need  for  generous 
amounts  of  vegetables  and  fruit  in  the  diet,  for  these  often 
seem  expensive  materials  in  comparison  with  the  amount 
of  energy  and  of  building  material  which  they  contain,  and 
the  poor  are  tempted  to  leave  them  entirely  out  of  their 
rations. 

REFERENCES 

Ohio  Agri.  Exp.  Station  (Wooster)  Bulletin  201.  "Mineral  Ele- 
ments in  Nutrition." 

Ohio  Agri.  Exp.  Station  (Wooster)  Bulletin  r207.  "The  Balance 
between  Inorganic  Acids  and  Bases  in  Animal  Nutrition." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  73,  pp.  23-27. 
"Losses  in  Cooking  Vegetables." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Office  of  Exp.  Station  Bulletin  No.  43. 
"Losses  in  Boiling  Vegetables." 


SETTING  THE  TABLE  67 

Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  4,  No.  5,  "Losses  in  Boiling  Vege- 
tables." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  mineral  elements  so  abundant  in  foods  that  they  do  not 
need  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  menu  making  ? 

2.  What  foods  contain  iron  ?    What  special  use  has  the  body  for 
this  substance  ? 

3.  Why  is  milk  so  valuable  a  food  for  babies  ? 

4.  How  may  carelessness  in  preparation  waste  or  lose  the  salts 
contained  in  foods  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  boiling,  baking,  and  steaming  of  vegetables  from 
this  point  of  view. 

6.  What  uses  may  be  made  of  the  water  in  which  vegetables  have 
been  cooked  ?    When  is  this  worth  while  ? 

7.  Do  canned  and  dried  vegetables  retain  their  mineral  salts  ? 


XII 

REVIEW   LESSON 

BREAKFAST 

PREPARE  AND  SERVE  A  BREAKFAST. 
Calculate  the  cost  per  person. 

Suggested  menu : 

Fruit,  fresh  or  stewed. 
Cereal,  cooked  or  ready-to-eat. 
Eggs,  boiled  or  poached. 
Serve  with  toast  or  bread. 
Milk. 

SETTING  THE  TABLE 

Scientists  have  established  the  fact  that  our  state  of 
mind  when  eating  is  an  important  matter,  a  sense  of  com- 


FOOD  STUDY 


fort  and  pleasure  going  far  toward  making  a  meal  easily 
digested.  It  is  imperative,  then,  to  try  to  make  the  table 
as  attractive  as  possible.  Everything  on  the  table  must 
be  scrupulously  clean,  so  clean  that  there  is  no  question 


From  "  Table  Service."  by  Lucy  O.  Allen. 

DIAGRAM  OF  BREAKFAST  TABLE 

about  it.  For  this  reason  the  use  of  a  colored  table-cloth, 
which  was  common  at  one  time,  is  no  longer  tolerated. 
It  is  often  difficult,  especially  with  children,  to  keep  all 
parts  of  a  table-cloth  unspotted.  In  that  case  it  is  well  to 
consider  the  use  of  doilies  which  may  be  replaced  as  each 


SETTING  THE  TABLE 


69 


70  FOOD   STUDY 

is  soiled  without  greatly  increasing  the  labor  of  washing. 
They  are  often  preferred  even  in  houses  where  cost  and 
work  are  not  a  consideration,  especially  for  the  less  formal 
meals.  Often,  only  one  fairly  large  doily  is  used  at  each 
place,  but  in  more  formal  service  or  with  a  very  highly 
polished  table  smaller  doilies  for  the  glass,  cup  and  saucer, 
and  bread-and-butter  plate  are  also  used. 

In  many  homes  the  table-cloth  is  not  removed  be- 
tween meals.  This  is  usually  unfortunate,  because  it 
is  seldom  possible  to  make  the  cloth  appear  as  fresh 
as  when  all  the  wrinkles  are  shaken  out.  Often, 
not  all  the  crumbs  are  removed.  If  the  housekeeper 
is  so  busy  that  leaving  the  table  set  is  a  necessary 
practice,  at  least  some  clean  outer  covering  should 
be  spread  over  it  to  keep  away  the  dust.  A  "silence 
cloth"  is  not  only  a  comfort  in  lessening  the  noise, 
but  it  helps  protect  the  table  from  hot  dishes. 
It  also  greatly  improves  the  appearance  of  the  table- 
cloth and  keeps  it  from  wearing  out  so  fast  against  the 
edge  of  the  table. 

At  each  place  the  fork  or  forks  are  placed  for  conven- 
ience with  the  tines  up  and  on  the  left  of  the  plate ;  for  the 
same  reason  the  knife  or  knives  on  the  right  with  the  sharp 
edge  toward  the  plate.  Knives  and  forks  should  be  placed 
at  such  a  distance  that  they  give  neither  a  crowded  nor  a 
sprawled-out  appearance  and  are  set  about  an  inch  from 
the  edge  of  the  table.  Spoons,  bowl  up,  are  usually  placed 
at  the  right  of  the  knives ;  occasionally,  however,  they  are 
put  at  the  top  of  the  knives  to  save  room.  When  much 
silver  is  to  be  used,  the  various  kinds  are  sometimes  ar- 
ranged according  to  size ;  but  it  is  better  form,  because  less 
confusing,  to  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  use,  placing 
those  to  be  used  first  on  the  outside.  Since  the  soup  spoon 
is  large  and  unmistakable,  it  is  sometimes  placed  out  of 


SETTING   THE  TABLE  71 

order  between  the  knives  and  smaller  spoons.  The  napkin 
should  lie  at  the  left  of  the  forks  unless  for  lack  of  room, 
then  it  may  be  placed  between  the  knives  and  forks.  The 
glass,  right  side  up,  at  the  end  of  the  knife,  and  a  butter 
plate  or  bread-and-butter  plate,  just  back  and  a  little 
to  the  left  of  the  fork,  usually  completes  the  individual 
service  except  for  the  plate  itself.  This  may  or  may  not 
be  in  place  when  the  meal  begins. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  general  rules  in  regard  to  the  dishes 
to  be  used.  Some  prefer  to  use  plates  under  soup  plates 
and  cereal  dishes,  and  consider  that  as  these  protect  the 
table  and  table-cloth  they  are  real  labor  savers.  But,  in 
general,  the  use  of  extra  dishes  is  not  best ;  and  vegetables, 
for  example,  should  be  served  on  the  main  plate  unless 
they  are  so  liquid  that  this  would  be  unpleasant. 

If  the  food  is  to  be  served  from  the  table,  it  should  be  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  reached  as  conveniently  as  possible 
by  the  one  who  is  to  serve.  Near  each  dish  should  be 
placed  the  utensils  which  will  be  needed;  these  should 
not  be  used  in  common  with  another  dish,  and  if  the  dishes 
are  passed  to  allow  each  to  serve  himself,  they  should  be 
passed  with  the  dish  so  that  no  one  is  tempted  to  use  his 
own  fork  or  spoon.  In  serving,  if  very  few  people  are 
present,  ladies  may  be  served  first.  Usually,  however,  it 
is  now  customary  for  the  host  or  hostess  to  serve  in  order, 
beginning  for  the  first  course  with  the  person  on  the  right 
and  at  the  next  course  with  the  person  on  the  left. 

REFERENCES 

FARMER.    "  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book  ",  picture,  page  592, 

HILL.    "Up-to-Date  Waitress." 

LARNED.    "Hostess  of  To-day." 

ALLEN.     "Table  Service." 

WILSON.    "Handbook  of  Domestic  Science",  pages  214-218. 


72 


FOOD   STUDY 


From  "  Table  Service,"  by  Lucy  G.  Allen. 

DIAGRAM  OP  TABLE  LAID  FOR  HOME  DINNER  (WITHOUT  SERV- 
ICE OF  MAID) 


SETTING  THE  TABLE  73 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  principle  underlying  the  arrangement  of  silver  and 
dishes  on  the  table  ? 

2.  Tell :   a.  Where  should  the  napkin  be  placed  while  you  are 

eating  ? 

b.  Should  the  napkin  be  laid  on  the  table  while  it  is 
being  folded  at  the  end  of  the  meal  ? 

c.  Is  it  ever  permissible  not  to  fold  the  napkin  ? 

d.  Show  the  proper  ways  of  using  knife,  fork,  and  spoon. 

e.  Where  should  the  knife  and  fork  be  placed  in  passing 
the  plate  for  a  second  serving  ?    Why  ? 

/.  From  what  part  of  the  spoon  should  we  eat  ? 

g.  Why  should  the  spoon  not  be  left  in  the  cup  ? 

h.  Why  should  a  whole   slice  of  bread  not  be  spread 

at  a  time  ?     How  should  bread  be  eaten  ? 
i.  Discuss  courteous  ways  of  offering  to  serve  another,  of 

accepting  or  refusing. 

3.  Why  should  dishes  offered  by  a  waitress  always  be  passed  to 
the  left  of  the  person  seated? 

4.  Why  should  finger  bowls  and  tumblers  not  be  filled  too  full  of 
water  ? 

5.  In  pouring  a  glass  of  water,  why  should  the  waitress  avoid 
touching  the  rim  of  the  glass  ?    Should  the  same  precaution  be  taken 
in  putting  away  glasses  after  washing  ? 

6.  What  care  must  be  taken  in  laying  a  table-cloth  ?    In  folding  it  ? 

7.  Why  are  doilies  sometimes  used  in  place  of  a  table-cloth  ?    At 
what  meals  are  they  most  often  used  ? 

8.  How  should  a  napkin  be  folded  when  it  is  laundered  ? 

9.  What  conditions  modify  the  number  of  courses  in  which  it  is 
desirable  to  serve  a  meal  ? 


74  FOOD  STUDY 

XIII 
TEA 

MARSHMALLOW  WAFERS 

A.  PREPARE  MARSHMALLOW  WAFERS. 

Dent  a  marshmallow  by  pressing  on  it,  as  hard  as  you 
can,  with  the  handle  of  a  knife.  Put  in  this  dent  a  piece 
of  butter  about  the  size  of  half  a  pea,  and  place  the  marsh- 
mallow  on  a  square  cracker  laid  on  an  unbuttered  tin. 
Put  it  in  the  oven,  until  it  puffs  up  and  browns  slightly. 
Remove  from  the  oven,  and,  as  it  grows  cold,  place  in  the 
dent  a  piece  of  a  candied  cherry. 

Serve  with  tea. 

B.  WEIGH  A  TEASPOON  OF  TEA.    Allowing  one  tea- 
spoon of  tea  to  one  cup,  what  would  each  cup  cost  ? 

C.  GREEN  TEA. 

1.  To  one-half  teaspoon  of  tea  add  one-half  cup  of  water 
which  is  hot,  but  not  boiling.    Let  it  stand  three 
minutes. 

2.  To  one-half  teaspoon  of  tea  add  one-half  cup  of  boil- 
ing water,  and  boil,  covered,  for  five  minutes. 

3.  To  one-half  teaspoon  of  tea  add  one-half  cup  of  boil- 
ing water.    Let  it  stand  three  minutes,  and  then 
strain  about  half  of  it  from  the  leaves. 

4.  Let  the  remainder  from  (3)  steep  twenty  minutes 
and  then  strain. 

5.  Pour  one-half   cup  boiling  water  through  one-half 
teaspoon  of  tea  in  a  fine  strainer  or  tea-ball. 

Compare  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  as  to  color,  flavor,  and 
strength. 


TEA  75 

Put  a  teaspoon  of  each  into  five  test  tubes,  add  one-half 
teaspoon  of  ferrous  sulphate  solution  and  set  aside  until 
black  precipitate  settles.  This  precipitate  shows  the 
amount  of  tannin  (a  substance  in  tea  liable  to  cause  diges- 
tive disturbances)  which  is  extracted  from  the  tea  by 
each  method. 

D.  Class  Experiments.    BLACK  TEA. 
Repeat  C,  but  use  black  instead  of  green  tea. 
Judging  from  these  experiments  which  method  of  making 

tea  is  best?    Why? 
Compare  the  amounts  of  tannin  in  green  and  black  tea. 

E.  MAKE  A  CUP  OP  TEA. 
Serve  with  the  wafers. 

TEA 

Chinese  tradition  recognizes  the  use  of  tea  since  2700 
B.C.,  but  it  was  not  used  in  England  or  on  the  Continent 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  nor  was 
it  imported  into  America  until  1711.  In  1660  Pepys,  an 
Englishman  of  some  political  and  social  experience,  records 
in  his  diary  the  taking  of  his  first  cup  of  tea,  which  he  ex- 
plains is  a  "China  drink."  Now  England  and  Australia 
use  large  quantities  of  it  per  capita  compared  with  its  con- 
sumption in  the  United  States. 

Tea  comes  to  us  mainly  from  China,  Japan,  Ceylon,  and 
India.  There  has  been  an  attempt,  however,  to  grow  it 
in  our  own  country,  and  some  is  produced  successfully  in 
South  Carolina.  Tea  is  made  from  the  leaves  of  a  shrub 
called  thea,  which  grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high.  In 
order  to  obtain  the  best  flavor  only  new,  tender  leaves  and 
buds  are  used,  but  as  these  shrubs  send  out  four  sets  of 
shoots  a  year,  there  are  four  harvests.  There  are  different 


76  FOOD   STUDY 

grades  and  varieties  of  tea  plants,  but,  in  general,  the  tea 
from  each  country  has  a  characteristic  flavor.  Great 
differences,  however,  are  due  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  leaf. 
The  two  leaves  nearest  the  tip  are  the  choicest  and  make 
the  real  Flowery  and  Orange  Pekoe;  but  it  is  said  the 
finest  grades  are  so  highly  prized  in  their  own  countries 
that  they  are  never  sold  in  the  United  States.  The  leaves 


TEA  LEAVES 


a,  Flowery  Pekoe ;  b,  Orange  Pekoe ;  c,  Pekoe ;  d,  Souchong 
(first);  e,  Souchong  (second);  /,  Congou;  h,  Bohea. 

which  grow  farther  and  farther  down  the  stem  make  less 
and  less  desirable  teas.  In  selecting  teas,  then,  the  size 
of  the  uncurled  leaves  and  their  uniformity  should  be 
considered.  The  substitution  of  a  larger  leaf  than  the 
brand  calls  for,  or  the  addition  of  tea  "dust",  or  of  too 
large  a  proportion  of  stems,  are  now  the  chief  adultera- 
tions. 

There  are  two  chief  methods  of  preparing  the  leaves  for 
market,  and  these  affect  not  only  the  appearance  but  also 


TEA  77 

the  flavor  and  the  composition  of  the  beverages  made  from 
them.  It  is  these  methods  of  preparation  which  give  us 
black  and  green  teas.  The  green  color  of  the  leaf  is  pre- 
served in  green  tea  by  drying  the  leaf  by  artificial  heat  and 
at  a  temperature  high  enough  to  destroy  any  ferments 
that  are  present.  During  the  drying,  constant  stirring 
will  cause  the  leaves  to  roll  and  curl.  In  making  black  tea, 
on  the  contrary,  the  leaves  are  only  withered  and  left 
sufficiently  moist  to  ferment  before  they  are  curled  and 
dried  thoroughly.  This  fermentation  not  only  changes 
the  color,  but  also  somewhat  affects  the  composition  of 
the  leaf.  The  exact  process,  number  of  dryings,  and  so 
forth,  differ  in  different  localities.  Formosa-oolong  is  a 
cross  between  black  and  green  tea.  It  is  a  semi-fermented 
tea  which  appears  black,  but  has  the  flavor  of  a  green  tea. 

Although  the  tea  leaf  is  itself  rich  in  protein,  the  infusion 
contains  practically  only  caffein,  tannin,  and  essential  oils. 
None  of  these  are  in  any  sense  food  materials.  Caffein,  a 
stimulating  substance  also  found  in  coffee,  acts  upon  the 
nerves,  producing  a  feeling  of  well-being,  but  it  is  this 
which  prevents  sleep  if  the  drinker  is  unaccustomed  to  the 
drug.  Caffein  is  so  soluble  that  practically  all  of  it  is 
extracted  from  the  leaves  however  the  infusion  is  made. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  essential  oils  which  give  the  charac- 
teristic flavor.  These  so-called  oils  are  not  really  oils  at 
all,  but  are  chemical  substances  present  in  very  small 
amounts,  and  are  somewhat  volatile.  For  this  reason  tea 
leaves  should  be  kept  in  covered  cans  or  jars. 

The  bitter  ingredient,  tannin,  is  drawn  out  more  and 
more  if  tea  stands  on  its  leaves,  or  is  boiled.  Tannin  is 
disagreeable  in  taste,  but,  besides  this,  it  may  hinder  the 
flow  of  digestive  juices,  and  retard  digestion.  As  a  result 
of  fermentation,  black  tea  contains  much  less  tannin  and 
is  usually  recommended  for  that  reason;  but  it  is  some- 


78  FOOD   STUDY 

what  more  stimulating  than  green  tea,  for  it  contains  a 
little  more  caffein.  Most  people  select  the  variety  of  tea 
they  use  merely  by  preference  for  its  flavor  without 
thought  of  composition.  (• 

Individuals  differ  greatly  in  their  sensitiveness  to  the 
stimulants  in  tea,  as  well  as  to  the  tannin.  Children  are 
always  much  more  easily  affected  than  adults,  and  should 
not  be  allowed  to  take  any  stimulating  drink.  Authorities 
say  that  no  one  should  touch  tea  or  coffee  until  over  thirty. 
Nervous  people,  of  course,  are  most  prone  to  notice  bad 
effects  from  the  caffein,  and  those  with  weak  digestions 
may  be  troubled  by  the  amount  of  tannin  which  even  well- 
made  tea  contains. 

REFERENCES 

FREEMAN  and  CHANDLER.    "World's  Commercial  Products." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  beverage? 

2.  What  is  a  decoction?    An  infusion?    Which  should  tea  be? 
What  is  meant  by  steeping  ? 

3.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  tea  leaf,  and  a  sketch  of  a  tea  plant. 

4.  Make  lists  of  some  of  the  best  varieties  of  both  black  and  green 
tea  with  their  present  prices. 

5.  What  ought  you  to  expect  to  pay  for  good  tea?    For  fancy 
varieties  ? 

6.  How  can  the  effects  of  tea-drinking  be  minimized  ? 

7.  Should  the  use  of  tea  be  encouraged?    What  people  should 
avoid  its  use  entirely  ? 

8.  Why  should  a  teapot  be  scalded  immediately  before  making 
tea  in  it  ? 


COFFEE  79 

XIV 

COFFEE 
CHEESE  WAFERS 

A.  PREPARE  CHEESE  WAFERS. 

Sprinkle  grated  cheese,  seasoned  slightly  with  salt  and 
paprika,  on  thin  crackers,  and  heat  them  in  the  oven 
until  the  cheese  melts. 

Serve  with  coffee. 

B.  COST  OF  COFFEE.    Determine  the  number  of  cups 
a  pound   of   coffee  will  make,   allowing  one  rounding 
tablespoon  of  ground  coffee  to  each  cup. 

C.  Class  Experiments.     MAKING  COFFEE. 

1.  Mix  one  rounding  tablespoon  of  coffee  with  one- 
half  teaspoon  of  egg  white  and  one  tablespoon  of 
cold  water.    Add  one  cup  of  boiling  water.    Boil 
three  minutes  and  let  stand  in  a  warm  place  or  over 
hot  water  for  five  minutes. 

2.  Repeat   (1),   omitting  the   egg.    Why   is   the   egg 
used? 

3.  Repeat   (1),    using   one   tablespoon  of   egg   white. 
Compare  carefully  the  resulting  coffee  for  color  and 
flavor  with  that  made  in  (1).     Can  too  much  egg  be 
used? 

4.  Repeat  (1),  omitting  the  egg,  but  adding  one  table- 
spoon of  cold  water  after  boiling.     Compare  care- 
fully with  (1)  and  (2).    What  is  the  use  of  the  cold 
water  ? 

5.  Repeat  (1),  omitting  the  egg,  but  tying  the  coffee 
in  a  piece  of  cheesecloth. 


80 


FOOD   STUDY 


D.    PERCOLATED  AND  DRIP  COFFEE. 

Coffee  made  by  these  methods  may  be  compared  with 
that  made  by  boiling. 

COFFEE 

The  coffee  bean  is  the  seed  of  a  fruit  resembling  a  cherry. 
Coffee  grows  on  an  evergreen  tree,  originally  a  native  of 

Arabia,  but  now  cul- 
tivated in  nearly  all 
tropical  countries. 
The  berries  are  pro- 
duced three  times  a 
year.  They  Fare 
picked  and  allowed 
to  ferment  to  soften 
the  pulp  which  is  later 
removed.  This  leaves 
a  husk  which  encloses 
two  berries  with  their 
flat  sides  next  each 
other.  After  the  re- 
moval of  the  pulp  the 
husk  is  dried  and 
broken  open  and  the 
berries  released. 
These  raw  berries  are  exported  to  the  countries  in  which 
they  are  to  be  used,  and  then  roasted  to  develop  flavor 
and  to  make  them  brittle  for  grinding.  After  washing 
they  are  sold  either  ground  or  unground.  As  after  grind- 
ing they  lose  flavor  somewhat  quickly,  the  housewife  usu- 
ally buys  either  the  whole  berries  and  grinds  them  as 
she  uses  them,  or  gets  the  grocer  to  grind  the  whole  for 
her,  or  else  she  buys  ground  coffee  in  air-tight  cans. 


COFFEE  BERRY  AND  LEAF. 


COFFEE  81 

Mocha,  Java,  and  Brazilian  coffees  are  the  three  prin- 
cipal kinds.  The  first  two  are  used  as  trade  names  for 
coffees  having  special  characteristics  and  do  not  signify 
the  place  of  production.  Most  coffee  comes  from  South 
America,  largely  from  Brazil.  Differences  of  flavor  are 
due  partly  to  differences  in  variety,  but  are  largely  the 
result  of  differences  in  the  maturity  of  the  berries  when 
gathered  and  in  the  length  of  time  they  are  roasted. 
Berries  are  picked  green,  or  left  to  turn  red,  or  ripen  fully 
to  a  purple.  Rio,  a  brand  which  is  very  familiar,  is  a 
Brazilian  coffee.  Brazilian  coffees  cost  less  than  Java. 
Mocha  is  most  expensive.  A  mixture  of  Mocha  and  Java 
is  a  general  favorite. 

Perhaps  the  most  economical  way  to  purchase  coffee  is  to 
buy  the  roasted  bean  in  five-  or  ten-pound  bags  and  store 
in  tins  until  needed.  The  whole  beans  bought  in  bulk  cost 
less  than  the  coffees  sold  in  pound  tins.  The  crispness 
of  the  bean  and  the  aroma  tell  whether  the  coffee  is  suffi- 
ciently fresh  to  be  good.  The  flavor  of  old  coffee  can  be 
somewhat  improved  by  spreading  it  out  well  and  re- 
roasting  in  an  oven. 

The  beverage  coffee  is  chemically  much  like  tea.  It  con- 
tains caffein  and  essential  oil  and  tannin,  but  the  tannin 
is  in  a  somewhat  different  form  and  is  perhaps  less  objec- 
tionable. While  the  percentage  of  caffein  in  the  bean  is 
less  than  in  tea  leaves,  so  much  more  coffee  is  used  in 
making  a  cup  of  the  beverage  that  a  cup  of  coffee  contains 
about  as  much  caffein  as  three-quarters  of  a  cup  of  tea. 
Coffee,  then,  like  tea,  should  be  avoided  by  the  nervous, 
by  those  who  have  digestive  disturbances,  and  by  children. 
Cream  or  milk  in  coffee  and  tea  seem  to  render  it  less 
digestible  to  some  people.  Individuals  differ  greatly  in 
their  sensitiveness  to  tea  and  coffee.  Some  are  much  more 
affected  by  one  than  by  the  other ;  some  are  sensitive  to 


82  FOOD  STUDY 

both.  It  is  easy  to  find  out  how  much  one  is  stimulated. 
Those  unaccustomed  to  coffee  can  see  whether  it  makes 
them  feel  nervous  or  produces  sleeplessness  or  indigestion. 
But  coffee  drinking  becomes  a  habit  and  no  great  effect 
may  be  noticed.  If,  however,  the  individual  accustomed 
to  it  will  try  going  without,  he  can  soon  tell  whether  it 
was  affecting  him.  If  he  has  headache,  or  is  unduly 
sleepy  and  dull,  he  may  be  sure  he  has  been  depending  on 
coffee  as  a  stimulant. 

A  small  cup  of  black  coffee  taken  at  the  end  of  a  hearty 
meal  sometimes  acts  as  a  promoter  of  digestion.  This 
usually  signifies  that  the  person  benefited  has  eaten  too 
much  and  would  be  better  off  if  he  ate  less  and  went  with- 
out the  coffee. 

REFERENCES 

FREEMAN  and  CHANDLER.    "World's  Commercial  Products." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  122.     "Coffee 
Substitutes." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is  coffee  grown?    How  prepared  for  the  market? 

2.  What  varieties  of  coffee  are  on  your  local  market  ? 

3.  What  do  these  varieties  cost?    What  is  a  reasonable  price  to 
pay  for  a  good  coffee  ? 

4.  Why  does  an  egg  settle  coffee  ?    Why  are  egg  shells  sometimes 
used?    If  the  shells  are  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  when  should 
they  be  washed  ? 

5.  Explain  why  cold  water  settles  coffee. 

6.  Is  coffee  a  decoction  or  an  infusion  ? 

7.  Describe  the  care  which  should  be  taken  of  a  coffee  pot. 

8.  Name  some  of  the  coffee  substitutes.     From  what  are  these 
usually  made?    How  does  their  cost  compare  with  that  of  coffee? 


COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE  83 

XV 

COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE 

OATMEAL  COOKIES 

A.  PREPARE  OATMEAL  COOKIES. 
Use  one-eighth  of  the  recipe: 

\  c.  sugar  \  tsp.  salt 

\  tbsp.  melted  butter  1  tsp.  vanilla 

1  egg  1  c.  rolled  oats 

1  tsp.  baking  powder 

Mix  the  dry  ingredients  and  add  the  egg  beaten  slightly 
and  the  melted  butter.  Drop  from  a  teaspoon  on  a 
buttered  tin.  Bake  from  five  to  seven  minutes  in  a  slow 
oven  (365°  F.). 

B.  Class  Experiments.    MAKING  COCOA. 

1.  Try  mixing  one  teaspoon  of  cocoa  with  cold  water. 

2.  Try    mixing  one   teaspoon   of    cocoa   with   boiling 
water. 

3.  Try  mixing  one  teaspoon  of  cocoa  slowly  with  boil- 
ing water. 

4.  Try  mixing  one  teaspoon  of  cocoa  with  one-half  tea- 
spoon of  sugar,  then  add  boiling  water. 

MAKE  COCOA.    Mix  as  seems  best  from  the  results 
of  B.    Use: 

1  tsp.  cocoa  i  c.  water 

£  tsp.  sugar  i  c.  milk 

A  few  grains  of  salt 
A  few  drops  of  vanilla,  if  desired 

Mix  cocoa,  salt,  sugar,  and  water,  and  boil  one 
minute.     Add  milk  and  boil  until  it  begins  to 


84  FOOD   STUDY 

froth.  Remove  at  once.  Let  half  of  this  stand 
a  few  moments.  Beat  the  other  half  with  an  egg- 
beater  or  a  wire  whisk  until  it  foams.  What  is 
the  advantage  of  "milling"  (beating)? 

C.    PREPARE  CHOCOLATE. 

Use  the  same  proportions  as  for  cocoa,  but  use  a  weight 
of  chocolate  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  teaspoon  of  cocoa. 
Melt  the  chocolate  with  sugar  in  a  saucepan  over  hot 
water,  add  boiling  water  slowly,  stirring  until  smooth. 
Then  boil  one  minute,  add  milk,  and  proceed  as  in  making 
cocoa.  Serve  with  cookies. 

When  would  it  be  better  in  making  cocoa  and  choco- 
late to  scald  the  milk  first? 

COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE 

The  cocoa  tree,  a  native  of  tropical  American  countries, 
produces  a  pod  from  seven  to  ten  inches  long,  and  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  thick  cucumber.  In  the  pod  are  found 
from  twenty  to  forty  beans  from  which  chocolate  and  cocoa 
are  manufactured.  The  pods  are  harvested  twice  a  year, 
the  beans  being  freed  from  the  pod  and  allowed  to  ferment. 
This  fermentation  is  carried  on  very  carefully,  for  upon  it 
depends  the  development  of  the  flavor.  Drying  in  the 
air  changes  the  color  of  the  bean  from  white  to  red. 
Roasting  changes  the  beans  further  and  loosens  the  husk, 
which  is  removed  and  sold  as  cocoa-shells,  to  be  boiled 
with  water  for  a  beverage.  The  part  of  the  bean  under 
the  husk  is  called  the  nib.  This  is  sometimes  crushed  and 
put  on  the  market  as  cracked  cocoa,  but  more  often  is 
ground  and  molded  into  a  cake  which  is  known  as  bitter  or 
cooking  chocolate ;  or,  mixed  with  sugar,  as  sweet  choco- 
late. The  latter  is  often  flavored,  usually  with  vanilla. 


COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE 


85 


Cocoa  is  made  from  chocolate  by  the  removal  of  part 
of  the  fat,  approximately  fifty  per  cent.  The  fat,  in 
American  manufacture,  is  merely  pressed  out  and,  as  cocoa 
butter,  forms  a  valuable  trade  product.  Dutch  manufac- 
turers treat  the  chocolate  with  alkali  in  the  process  of  mak- 
ing cocoa  and  add  some  spice,  usually  cinnamon,  as  well  as 
vanilla.  So-called  "soluble  cocoas"  are  merely  those 
which  are  finely 
ground  and  so  remain 
in  suspension  a  longer 
time. 

Cocoa,  as  a  bever- 
age, differs  from  tea 
and  coffee  in  being 
fairly  nutritious.  As 
larger  amounts  of 
milk  or  cream  are 
usually  used  in  its 
preparation,  this,  too, 
increases  the  food 
value.  Cocoa  con- 
tains tannin,  but  in 
a  quite  different  form 
from  that  found  in 
tea,  and  its  stimulat- 
ing ingredient,  theo- 
bromin,  although  like  caffein  in  its  effects,  is  much  milder. 
However,  there  is  something  of  a  reaction  against  the  too 
free  use  of  chocolate  and  cocoa,  even  in  cases  when  the 
large  amount  of  fat  in  chocolate  does  not  cause  trouble. 
Doctors  caution  some  invalids  and  children  against  the 
use  of  chocolate.  Many  who  do  not  feel  stimulated  by 
it  notice  the  diuretic  effect.  Still,  chocolate  is  probably 
much  to  be  preferred  to  tea  and  coffee  as  a  beverage, 


COCOA  POD  AND  BEANS 


86  FOOD   STUDY 

particularly  as  we  are  not  likely  to  demand  it  with  the 
same  frequency. 

CONDIMENTS  AND  FLAVORING  EXTRACTS 

Substances  possessing  practically  no  nutritive  value,  but 
consumed  either  for  their  stimulating  effects  or  for  their 
flavor,  are  known  as  food  adjuncts.  Tea  and  coffee  belong 
under  this  head,  as  do  condiments  which  increase  the  appe- 
tite and  stimulate  the  flow  of  digestive  juices.  Condi- 
ments are  largely  aromatic  fruits,  seeds,  and  leaves,  con- 
taining volatile  oils.  Little  children  are  considered  better 
off  without  spiced  foods,  as  natural,  unstimulated  appetite 
is  the  best  guide  to  the  amount  of  food  which  should  be 
eaten.  Then,  too,  the  spices  which  are  preservatives  may 
hinder  digestion  and  so  cause  difficulty.  The  flavorings 
vanilla,  orange,  and  lemon  are  usually  considered  harmless. 

ALLSPICE.  The  fruit  of  an  evergreen  tree  which  grows 

in  the  West  Indies  and  belongs  to  the 
same  family  as  the  clove.  The  fruit  is 
gathered  when  it  is  full  grown,  but  before 
it  is  ripe,  and  is  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
name  comes  from  the  supposed  resem- 
blance in  taste  to  a  mixture  of  cinnamon, 
clove,  and  nutmeg. 

ANISE,  coriander,  cumin,  dill,  and  fennel,  are  all 

fruits  of  various  plants. 

BAYLEAF,  marjoram,  mint,  and  summer  savory 

are  dried  herbs. 

CAPERS.  These  are  the  flower  buds  of  the  caper 

bush.  They  are  picked  and  dried,  and 
stored  in  vinegar,  but  afterwards  re- 
moved and  packed  for  shipping  without 
the  vinegar. 


CONDIMENTS 


87 


CARAWAY.  These  so-called  seeds  are  the  fruit  of  a 

plant  growing  in  northern  and  central 
Europe  and  Asia ;  it  is  also  cultivated  in 
this  country,  especially  in  California. 

CAYENNE.  Cayenne  or  red-pepper  is  the  fruit  of  the 

capsicum,  not  a  true  pepper,  several 
species  of  which  are  grown  in  the  tropics. 
They  belong  to  the  same  family  as  the 
potato  and  tomato. 

CINNAMON.  True  cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  a  plant 
native  to  Ceylon.  Cassia  is  a  thicker 
bark,  resembling  cinnamon  in  flavor,  but 
less  delicate,  coming  from  India,  China, 
and  the  East  Indies.  Much  so-called 
cinnamon  is  really  cassia.  Both  have  a 
right  to  the  botanical  name  cinnamon. 

CLOVE.  The  flower  buds  of  an  evergreen  grown 

largely  in  Zanzibar,  British  East  India, 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  buds  are 
dried  in  the  sun  or  treated  with  wood 
smoke.  Dark,  well-formed  cloves  are 
best.  Ground  cloves  deteriorate  more 
quickly  than  do  whole  cloves. 

GINGER.  The  root  of  a  plant  native  to  southern 

Asia.  The  plant,  not  unlike  the  iris  in 
appearance,  grows  freely  in  moist  places  in 
tropical  countries.  The  root  is  gathered 
when  the  stem  withers,  is  scalded,  or 
washed  and  scraped,  to  prevent  sprouting, 
and  is  sometimes  bleached.  Preserved, 
Canton,  and  crystallized  ginger  are  made 
from  young  roots. 

HORSE-RADISH.  This  is  the  root  of  a  plant  related  to  the 
cress  or  nasturtium  family.  It  is  ground 


88 


FOOD   STUDY 


MACE. 
MUSTARD. 


NUTMEG. 
PAPRIKA. 

PEPPER. 


SALT. 


for  use,  and  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
vinegar. 

This  spice  is  made  from  the  covering 
which  surrounds  the  nutmeg  seed. 
The  product  is  ground  from  the  seeds  of 
various   species   of   the   mustard   plant. 
The  hulls  may  or  may  not  be  removed. 
Unground  white  mustard  seeds  are  fre- 
quently used  in  pickling.     French  mus- 
tard is  prepared  by  mixing  ground  mus- 
tard with  vinegar  and  other  flavoring 
materials,  such  as  garlic  and  spices. 
Nutmegs  are  the  dried  seeds  of  a  tree 
which  resembles  the  orange.    The  tree  is 
native  to  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 
This  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  ripe  fruit 
of  the  capsicum,  carefully  excluding  seeds 
and  stem.    This  gives  a  product  which  is 
far  less  peppery  than  Cayenne. 
The  fruit  of  the  pepper  plant,  a  climbing 
perennial  shrub,  grown  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies.    The  unripe    peppercorns 
make  black  pepper.    The  ripe  pepper, 
with  the  husk  removed,  is  ground  into 
white  pepper. 

Table  salt  is  composed  largely  of  sodium 
chloride,  usually  with  other  mineral 
matter,  such  as  calcium  sulphate.  Traces 
of  calcium  and  magnesium  chloride  may 
also  be  present.  In  the  United  States, 
nine-tenths  of  all  the  salt  produced  comes 
from  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and 
Kansas.  Salt  is  obtained  by  mining  rock 
salt,  from  salt  wells,  or  by  the  evapora- 


EXTRACTS  89 

tion  of  salt  water  from  the  ocean  or  from 
salt  lakes.  Salt  produced  in  the  third 
way  must  be  refined  by  re-dissolving  in 
water  and  then  re-crystallizing. 

VINEGAR.  In  the  United  States,  vinegar  means  the 

product  resulting  from  the  fermentation 
of  apple  juice.  This  is  sometimes  called 
apple  or  cider  vinegar,  but  various  vine- 
gars made  from  other  materials  may  also 
be  sold  under  their  appropriate  names; 
as  wine  vinegar,  malt  vinegar,  and  grain 
or  spirit  vinegar. 

EXTRACTS 

Extracts  are  solutions  in  alcohol  of  the  volatile  oils 
and  other  substances  which  give  the  characteristic  flavors 
to  various  plants.  Extracts  of  many  varieties  are  on  the 
market,  but  vanilla,  lemon,  orange,  and  almond  are,  per- 
haps, the  most  commonly  used. 

Vanilla  is  a  bean  from  a  climbing  vine,  native  to  tropical 
America.  The  beans  grow  in  a  pod  which  is  allowed  to 
ferment  after  it  is  picked.  Then  the  beans  are  dried  for 
market.  To  make  extract  they  are  cut  up  and  extracted 
with  alcohol.  Sugar  is  sometimes  added.  The  Tonka 
bean  has  a  similar  flavor. 

Lemon  and  orange  extracts  are  prepared  by  soaking 
the  peel  of  the  fruits  in  strong  alcohol. 

Almond  extract  is  made  from  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 
This  oil  may  be  obtained  not  only  from  bitter  almonds  but 
also  from  the  seeds  of  apricots  and  peaches. 

All  spices  and  extracts  sold  in  interstate  commerce  must 
conform  to  certain  fixed  standards  prescribed  by  Federal 
laws.  Many  states  also  prescribe  standards. 


90  FOOD   STUDY 


REFERENCES 

"History  and  Use  of  Cocoa  and  Chocolate."    Walter  Baker  &  Co. 

Ltd.,  Dorchester,  Mass. 

"The  Chocolate  Plant."      Walter  Baker  &  Co.  Ltd. 
OLSEN.    "Pure  Foods." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  it  economical  to  buy  a  sweetened  cocoa  and  pay  as  much  per 
pound  as  for  ordinary  cocoa  ? 

2.  Which  costs  most  per  pound,  chocolate  or  cocoa  ? 

3:  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  using  cocoa  in 
place  of  chocolate  in  making  frostings,  cakes,  and  the  like  ? 

4.  Is  it  easier  to  melt  or  grate  chocolate  for  such  use  ? 

5.  How  do  cocoa  and  chocolate  compare  in  food  value  with  tea 
and  coffee  ? 


XVI 

FREEZING 

WATER  ICES 
SHERBET 

A.    Class   Experiments.     A    STUDY    OF    FREEZING 
MIXTURES. 

1.  Prepare  a  small  bowl  of: 
a.  cracked  ice. 
6.  mixture  of  one  part  of  salt  to  one  part  of  ice. 

c.  mixture  of  one  part  of  salt  to  seven  parts  of  ice. 

d.  mixture  of  one  part  of  salt  to  ten  parts  of  ice. 
Insert  a  thermometer  in  each  bowl  as  soon  as  the  ice 
and  salt  are  mixed  and  find  the  lowest  temperature 
obtainable  in  each  case,  also  the  length  of  time  neces- 
sary to  obtain  this  temperature. 


FREEZING  91 

2.  Effect  of  different  freezing  mixtures. 

Prepare  a  syrup,  using  two  tablespoons  of  sugar  to 
one-half  cup  of  water.  Pour  into  four  test  tubes. 
Prepare  bowls  as  in  (1)  and  insert  one  of  the  test  tubes 
in  each.  Compare  the  time  required  to  freeze,  and 
the  textures  of  the  frozen  syrups.  Which  freezing 
mixture  will  you  use  to  freeze  an  ice  or  a  sherbet  ? 

3.  Insert  in  a  freezing  mixture  of  one  part  of  salt  to 
seven  parts  of  ice  test  tubes  containing : 

a.  a  tablespoon  of  water. 

b.  a  tablespoon  of  water  and  a  saltspoon  of  ground 
spice. 

c.  a  tablespoon  of  syrup  (one  part  sugar  to  four 
parts  of  water). 

d.  a  tablespoon  of  syrup  (one  part  sugar  to  one 
part  of  water). 

e.  a  tablespoon  of  stiffly  beaten  white  of  egg. 
Notice  the  time  necessary  to  freeze  and  the  texture  of 
each.     Take  the  temperature  of  each  when  frozen. 
What  is  the  effect  of  suspended  and  dissolved  sub- 
stances on  the  freezing  point  of  water  ? 

B.  PREPARE  LEMON  ICE. 

Boil  two  tablespoons  of  sugar  with  half  a  cup  of  water  to 
make  a  syrup.  Add  one  tablespoon  of  lemon  juice.  Cool, 
pour  into  a  tin  measuring  cup  or  similar  container,  cover, 
and  surround  with  ice  and  salt.  (What  proportion  will  you 
use  ?)  Stir  while  freezing. 

C.  Class  Work.    PREPARE  LEMON  SHERBET. 
Prepare  a  syrup,  using  the  same  proportions  as  in  (B) 

but  make  enough  to  serve  the  whole  class.    Freeze  in  a 
regular  freezer. 

1.  Use  two  teaspoons  of  gelatine  for  every  quart  of 
liquid.    Soak  the  gelatine  in  a  little  cold  water,  while 


92  FOOD   STUDY 

the  syrup  is  cooking.  Then  pour  the  hot  syrup  over 
it.  Add  lemon  in  the  same  proportion  given  in  (B) 
and  strain.  Grated  lemon  peel  may  be  added. 

Or: 

2.  When  syrup  is  cool,  mix  in  stiffly  beaten  white  of 
egg,  using  one-half  to  one  egg  white  for  each  cup  of 
liquid.  Add  lemon  as  before. 

FREEZING  MIXTURES 

Without  a  knowledge  of  physics  it  is  rather  difficult  to 
understand  how  ice  and  salt  act  as  a  freezing  mixture.  In 
order  to  understand  it  at  all  we  must  know  some  prelimi- 
nary facts.  In  the  first  place,  the  subject  of  energy  must  be 
considered.  Cold  is  not  a  thing  in  itself,  but  merely  the 
absence  of  heat.  Heat,  light,  electricity,  magnetism,  and 
motion  are  all  forms  of  energy  and  can  be  transformed  one 
into  another.  Electricity  in  our  lamps,  for  example,  is 
changed  into  light  and  also  gives  off  heat.  In  an  electric 
flat-iron,  heat  is  produced  without  any  light  at  all.  The 
heat  of  the  fuel  is,  in  a  locomotive,  turned  into  the  motion 
which  carries  the  train  along.  It  is  well-known,  too,  that 
some  substances,  as  a  piece  of  hard  rubber  such  as  is  found 
in  a  fountain  pen,  can  easily  be  electrified  on  a  cold  day  by 
rubbing  briskly  on  a  woollen  surface  and  that  they  will  then 
attract  bits  of  paper.  These  are  all  cases  where  one  form 
of  energy  is  turned  into  another ;  and  it  is  a  law  in  physics 
that  no  energy  is  ever  destroyed,  but  continues  to  exist. 
When  a  solid  like  ice  is  changed  into  a  liquid  like  water,  or  a 
liquid  such  as  water  is  changed  into  a  gas  such  as  water 
vapor,  heat  is  necessary  for  the  change.  This  is  said  to  be 
used  up  in  performing  work  and  is  spoken  of  as  hidden,  or 
latent  heat. 

The  same  kind  of  action  is  illustrated  by  boiling  water. 


FREEZING  MIXTURES  93 

The  temperature  of  the  water  rises  until  the  boiling  point 
is  reached,  but  no  further  application  of  heat  will  raise  the 
temperature  above  this  point.  This  is  because  as  fast  as 
the  heat  is  supplied  it  is  used  up  in  turning  the  water  into 
steam ;  the  more  the  heat  supplied,  the  more  steam  there 
is  formed,  but  the  temperature  of  the  steam  itself  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  water  from  which  it  comes.  But  when 
it  is  said  that  the  heat  is  used  up,  it  is  not  meant  that  it  is 
destroyed ;  for  if  the  vapor  be  changed  back  to  water,  or 
the  water  to  ice,  the  energy  again  manifests  itself  and 
appears  as  heat. 

A  second  point  to  be  understood  is  what  is  shown  by  the 
freezing  experiments  :  a  liquid  that  has  another  substance 
dissolved  in  it  no  longer  freezes  at  the  same  temperature, 
but  at  a  lower  one.  The  more  substance  there  is  dissolved, 
the  lower  the  freezing  point  becomes. 

Now  what  happens  when  the  ice  and  salt  are  mixed  that 
makes  the  two  so  much  colder  than  before  ?  The  ice  is  at 
32°  F.  and  the  salt  much  warmer,  but  as  soon  as  they  are 
mixed  the  temperature  falls  rapidly.  What  occurs  is  this. 
The  ice  and  salt  which  are  next  each  other  are  mixed  to 
form  brine.  But  brine,  being  really  water  with  salt  dis- 
solved in  it,  should  not  freeze  at  32°  but  at  a  much  lower 
temperature.  If  it  cannot  be  frozen,  the  ice  must  melt. 
But,  as  has  already  been  said,  heat  is  necessary  to  bring 
this  about.  The  only  available  heat  is  in  the  mixture  itself 
or  the  surrounding  objects  with  which  it  comes  into  con- 
tact. This  heat  is  used  up  in  doing  the  work  of  melting  the 
ice  and  becomes  latent, — that  is,  disappears  and  is  no 
longer  evident  as  heat.  Some  heat  also  is  used  in  doing 
the  work  of  dissolving  the  salt  in  the  water.  As  a  result 
of  these  two  actions  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  drops. 

There  are  certain  substances  which  conduct  heat  readily. 
It  is  well  known  how  hard  it  is  to  hold  the  end  of  a  metal 


94  FOOD   STUDY 

spoon  while  the  other  end  is  in  boiling  water.  No  diffi- 
culty is  experienced,  if  a  wooden  spoon  is  used.  Wood, 
then,  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and  metal  a  good  one. 

An  ordinary  ice-cream  freezer  has  a  container  made  of 
metal.  This  is  so  that  the  heat  in  the  cream  can  easily 
be  "conducted"  to  the  freezing  mixture  to  be  used  up  in 
melting  the  ice  and  so  disappear.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
outside  tub  of  the  freezer  is  usually  of  wood.  That  is  in 
order  to  keep  the  heat  of  the  air  from  being  easily  con- 
ducted into  the  freezing  mixture,  lest  this  heat  be  used 
instead  of  that  in  the  cream  which  is  to  be  frozen.  The 
difficulty  with  the  wooden  tub  is  that  as  it  stands  unused 
it  is  apt  to  shrink  and  then  leak,  and,  besides,  it  is  heavy  and 
clumsy.  So  some  ice-cream  freezers  have  a  metal  outside. 
They  undoubtedly  take  a  little  more  ice  and  salt  to  do  the 
work,  but  otherwise  are  quite  satisfactory. 

REFERENCES 

Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Burlington,  Vt.    "The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Ice 
Cream  Making." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  an  ice-cream  freezer  have  a  dasher? 

2.  Which  is  cheaper,  ice  or  salt  ?    How  does  this  point  affect  the 
choice  of  the  proportions  of  ice  and  salt  to  be  used  in  a  freezing  mix- 
ture? 

3.  What  proportion  of  ice  and  salt  would  you  use  for  chilling  ? 

4.  How  is  ice  cream  packed  and  how  is  it  covered  for  keeping  ? 

5.  Can  you  make  an  ice  cream  or  an  ice  mixture  so  sweet  it  will 
not  freeze?    Why? 

6.  Can  snow  be  used  to  make  a  freezing  mixture  instead  of  ice  ? 

7.  Could  ice  have  been  frozen  as  readily  in  a  glass  cup  as  in  a  tin 
cup  ?    Explain. 

8.  Explain  why  cologne  rubbed  on  the  forehead  feels  cool. 

9.  There  are  pressure  cookers  on  the  market  which  boil  at  a  tem- 
perature above  212°  F.    These  cookers  are  of  metal  with  a  cover 
which  screws  or  clamps  tightly  into  place,  preventing  the  escape  of  the 


RECEPTION  95 

steam  until  the  pressure  reaches  a  certain  degree,  when  an  auto- 
matic escape  valve  opens.  The  steam  pressing  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  prevents  the  ready  formation  of  more  steam.  Why  does  the 
temperature  of  the  water  then  rise  above  that  of  ordinary  boiling 
water  ? 

XVII 
RECEPTION 

CANDIED  FRUIT  PEEL 

MARGUERITES 

SANDWICHES 

HOLD  A  RECEPTION. 

Prepare  bread-and-butter  or  jelly  sandwiches,  candied 
fruit  peel,  and  marguerites  or  marshmallow  crackers, 
cocoa  or  tea,  or  coffee,  as  desired. 

1.  CANDIED  FRUIT  PEEL. 

Wash  and  remove  the  skin  of  an  orange  or  grape 
fruit.  Boil  in  water  until  tender.  If  the  peel  is 
very  oily,  the  water  may  be  changed  during  the  pro- 
cess. When  the  peel  is  soft,  scrape  off  some  of  the 
inside  white  and  cut  the  peel  into  even,  narrow 
strips.  Make  a  syrup,  using  half  a  cup  of  sugar  and 
an  equal  amount  of  the  water  in  which  the  peel  was 
cooked.  Add  the  peel  and  cook  until  the  syrup  is 
nearly  evaporated,  stirring.  Drain  the  peel  and  roll 
it  in  granulated  sugar.  Let  it  dry  before  serving. 

2.  MARGUERITES. 

12  wafers  \  tsp.  vanilla 

1  egg  white  £  c.  chopped  nuts  or  raisins  or 
^  tsp.  salt  the  two  mixed 

2  tbsp.  powdered  sugar 


96  FOOD   STUDY 

Mix  the  salt  with  the  egg,  and  beat  until  very  stiff. 
Add  the  other  ingredients,  and  spread  on  wafers. 
Heat  in  a  moderate  oven  until  a  delicate  brown. 

3.  SANDWICHES. 

In  cutting  bread  for  sandwiches,  cut  the  slices  as 
thinly  and  evenly  as  possible.  The  crusts  may  or 
may  not  be  removed.  If  they  are  cut  off,  save  them 
to  use  as  bread  crumbs.  If  the  butter  is  creamed 
before  using,  it  will  spread  more  easily.  After  the 
slices  are  put  together,  they  may  be  cut  in  squares, 
oblongs,  or  triangles.  Sandwiches  cut  in  rounds  are 
rather  wasteful,  unless  the  original  loaf  was  a  cylinder. 
In  order  to  prevent  drying,  sandwiches  should  be 
wrapped  in  a  dry  cloth  with  a  damp  one  outside, 
until  just  before  serving. 

RECEPTIONS 

Going  to  a  reception  sometimes  seems  a  formidable 
undertaking  to  one  not  used  to  it,  but  in  reality  it  is  a 
simple  affair  for  the  guest.  If  the  reception  is  formal  and 
the  invitation  "requests  the  pleasure  of  your  company",  a 
reply  must  be  sent  in  like  form.  But  if  the  reception 
card  is  informal  as  that  for  an  "  at  home  ",  and  if  the  invita- 
tion is  to  be  accepted,  unless  the  invitation  says  "please 
reply"  or  "R.S.V.P.",  which  is  an  abbreviation  for  the 
French  words  meaning  the  same  thing,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  respond.  If  one  cannot  attend,  a  calling  card  should  be 
mailed  or  sent  to  the  hostess.  If  more  than  one  name  ap- 
pears on  the  invitation,  a  man  sends  one  calling  card  for 
each  person,  a  woman  one  for  each  woman,  but  all  are 
merely  enclosed  in  the  one  envelope  and  directed  to  the 
hostess.  Nothing  is  written  upon  the  cards. 


RECEPTIONS  97 

The  guest  may  appear  at  any  convenient  time  during 
the  hours  set.  Hat  and  gloves  are  worn  at  an  afternoon 
reception,  but  coats  are  ordinarily  removed.  Hats  are  not 
worn  at  an  evening  affair. 

The  guest  shakes  hands  first  with  the  hostess,  then  with 
any  others  who  may  be  standing  with  her.  Whether  any 
chatting  may  be  done  depends  upon  the  number  of  guests 
waiting  for  a  chance  to  speak  to  the  receiving  line.  After 
mingling  with  the  others  for  a  few  moments,  one  may  be 
invited  to  go  to  the  dining  room,  or  in  the  case  of  very  in- 
formal affairs  left  to  find  one's  own  way  out.  After  being 
served,  one  may  chat  again  with  friends,  or  go  directly 
to  the  receiving  line  to  say  good-by,  and  express  one's 
pleasure.  Before  leaving  the  house,  cards  are  left,  the 
same  rules  applying  as  if  they  were  sent. 

An  invitation  to  a  reception  is  supposed  to  necessitate  a 
call  upon  the  hostess  afterwards,  but  at  the  present  time 
this  rule  is  generally  disregarded  unless  the  invitation  has 
not  been  accepted. 

The  hostess  is  busy  receiving  her  guests,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  that  she  be  relieved  of  other  cares.  At  informal 
affairs  friends  are  asked  to  pour  at  tables  or  to  serve, 
sometimes  to  invite  to  the  dining  room.  Those  assisting 
do  not  wear  hats.  In  some  places  it  is  a  pretty  custom  to 
pin  favors,  a  flower  or  a  knot  of  ribbon,  to  each  guest  as 
he  is  served,  so  that  no  one  shall  be  overlooked. 

REFERENCES 

FARMER.     "  Boston     Cooking-School    Cook    Book,"    illustration 
opposite  p.  601. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  difference  in  the  arrangement  of  the  table  for 
a  meal  and  for  a  reception? 


98  FOOD   STUDY 

2.  If  you  were  instructing  a  person  ignorant  of  how  to  behave  at  a 
reception,  what  points  would  you  make  ? 

3.  Write  a  formal  invitation  and  acceptance  for  a  reception. 

4.  Under  what  circumstances  do  you  send  a  card  to  a  reception  ? 
When  do  you  leave  a  card  ? 


XVIII 

COMBUSTION   AND   FUELS 

SCALLOPED  POTATOES 

A.  PREPARE  SCALLOPED  POTATOES. 

Wash,  pare,  and  cut  a  potato  into  very  thin  slices.  Put 
in  layers  in  a  baking  dish.  Season  each  layer  with  salt 
and  butter,  and  pepper  if  desired.  Cover  with  milk,  and 
bake  in  a  slow  oven  until  the  potato  is  soft. 

B.  Class  Experiments.    1.  FUELS. 

Take  a  narrow  test  tube  and  fill  it  two-thirds  full 
of  wood  —  the  stems  of  matches  will  do.  Heat, 
holding  it  cautiously  in  a  flame.  As  smoke 
escapes,  put  a  lighted  match  in  the  smoke  and 
see  if  it  can  be  set  on  fire.  Notice  the  black 
residue  left  in  the  tube.  This  is  charcoal. 

2.  Is  air  necessary  to  combustion? 

Lower  a  candle  or  a  burning  splinter  of  wood 
into  a  bottle  of  air  and  cover  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible. Does  it  continue  to  burn  ? 

3.  What  is  formed  when  fuel  burns  ? 

a.  Hold  a  cold  glass  tumbler  for  a  moment 
over  a  burning  candle.     Observe  whether 
moisture  forms  on  the  inside  of  the  glass. 

b.  Burn  a  candle  or  a  piece  of  wood  in  a 
covered  bottle  till  flame  is  extinguished. 


COMBUSTION  AND  FUELS  99 

Remove  the  candle  or  wood  quickly  and 
pour  in  a  little  lime  water,  and  shake  it 
around.  Does  it  become  milky?  Try 
lime  water  in  a  clean  bottle  of  air.  Carbon 
dioxide  is  the  gas  which  turns  lime  water 
milky. 

c.  It  is  commonly  said  that  food  acts  as  fuel 
in  the  body.     See  if  the  "products  of  com- 
bustion", water  and  carbon  dioxide,  can  be 
detected  in  the  air  breathed  out. 
Test  as  follows : 

(1)  Breathe  on  a  cold  pane  of  glass.    Does 
moisture  collect  ? 

(2)  Breathe  through  a  glass  tube  or  a 
lemonade  straw  into  lime  water.     Do 
we  breathe  out  carbon  dioxide  ? 

COMBUSTION  AND  FUELS 

When  the  word  combustion  is  used,  it  ordinarily  means 
burning,  that  is,  the  union  of  a  substance  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  with  such  rapidity  that  both  heat  and  light  are 
produced.  But  in  order  to  have  this  combustion  take 
place,  it  is  necessary  to  have  something  more  than  a  com- 
bustible substance  and  oxygen.  Wood  is  a  combustible 
substance,  but  it  does  not  burn  unless  it  is  sufficiently 
heated  to  "  take  fire."  Not  all  materials  have  to  be  heated 
to  the  same  degree  to  make  them  burn,  and  the  point  to 
which  each  must  be  heated  is  called  the  kindling  tempera- 
ture of  the  substance.  Phosphorus  has  a  low  kindling 
temperature  and  can  easily  be  set  on  fire  by  the  heat  of 
friction  ;  that  is  why  it  is  used  on  the  heads  of  matches. 

Most  combustible  substances  contain  both  carbon  and 
hydrogen  as  well  as  a  little  oxygen.  When  they  are  burned 


100  FOOD  STUDY 

in  the  air  the  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  to  make  carbon 
dioxide,  and  the  hydrogen  with  oxygen  to  form  water, 
oxygen  from  the  air  being  used  in  the  process.  The  com- 
mon fuels  are  inexpensive  substances  which  are  largely 
composed  of  these  three  elements.  Foods,  too,  contain 
the  same  elements  in  large  amounts.  When  food  is 
burned  in  the  body  the  process  is  a  much  slower  one  than 
ordinary  burning  and  no  light  at  all  is  produced,  but  the 
heat  maintains  the  body  temperature.  Some  fuels,  like 
some  foods,  have  nitrogen  in  them,  but  this  does  not  help  in 
the  production  of  heat.  The  elements  in  fuels  and  foods 
are  put  together  so  differently,  however,  that  they  are 
entirely  unlike  in  their  nature,  and  the  body  could  not  burn 
coal  or  wood  instead  of  food. 

The  fuels  that  are  most  widely  used  in  this  country  are 
wood,  coal,  kerosene,  and  gas.  Wood  is  becoming  so  expen- 
sive and  requires  so  much  space  for  storage,  that,  in  cities, 
it  is  used  only  in  starting  a  coal  fire.  In  country  districts 
where  wood  is  cheap,  wood  stoves  are  still  in  common  use. 
Wood  must  be  set  on  fire  by  piling  it  on  top  of  burning 
paper,  straw,  or  shavings.  Such  kindling  is  not  sufficiently 
hot  to  set  fire  to  coal,  so,  in  laying  the  coal  fire,  both  paper 
and  wood  are  used.  Wood  is  roughly  divided  into  two 
classes,  hard  and  soft;  the  first  is  desirable  when  long- 
continued,  steady  heat  is  necessary ;  the  other  for  quick, 
hot  fires.  For  kindling,  soft  wood  must,  of  course,  be 
chosen.  The  usual  way  of  selling  wood  is  by  the  cord, 
which  consists  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  cubic  feet. 

Coal  is  of  two  general  kinds,  anthracite  or  hard  coal, 
containing  about  ninety  per  cent  of  carbon  and  very  little 
gas,  and  bituminous  or  soft  coal  which  contains  gas  and 
burns  with  considerable  flame.  The  latter  variety  is 
dirty  to  handle  and  gives  off  much  soot.  It  costs  less  by 
the  ton,  however,  than  hard  coal,  especially  in  some  parts 


COMBUSTION  AND  FUELS  101 

of  the  country,  so  it  is  often  commonly  used.  A  fire  made 
with  it  requires  more  frequent  attention  than  one  made 
with  hard  coal,  and  when  this  and  the  cost  of  the  cleaning 
and  laundering  which  it  necessitates,  as  well  as  the  wear 
that  this  extra  laundering  means  for  fabrics,  are  all  taken 
into  account,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  use  of  soft  coal  is 
really  cheaper.  Coal  is  sold  by  the  ton;  a  long  ton  is 
2240  pounds,  a  short  ton  only  2000  pounds. 

Kerosene  is  also  a  much-used  fuel,  and  in  the  blue-flame 
stoves  a  very  satisfactory  one.  It  is  one  of  the  oils  present 
in  petroleum,  a  mixture  of  natural  oils  found  in  the  ground 
in  large  quantities  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  In  order 
to  be  sure  that  the  more  inflammable  oils  are  not  left  in 
the  kerosene,  in  most  states  the  quality  is  regulated  by  a 
requirement  that  the  flashing  point  shall  not  be  below  a 
certain  temperature.  The  flashing  point  is  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  vapor  from  the  kerosene  will  catch  fire 
or  flash.  The  kerosene  itself  does  not  burn,  and  the  vapor 
only  for  an  instant.  The  temperature  required  below 
which  the  vapor  must  not  flash  varies  from  110°  F.  to 
200°  F.,  the  latter  meaning  a  very  high-grade  oil.  Prob- 
ably 149°  F.  is  sufficiently  safe,  but  as  all  kerosene  is 
explosive,  care  must  be  taken  in  its  use.  Stoves  and  lamps 
should  be  filled  only  by  daylight  and  never  when  they 
are  lighted  or  hot.  Kerosene  is  sometimes  poured  on  a 
fire  of  coal  or  wood  to  act  as  kindling,  and  there  have  been 
many  accidents  from  such  use.  Safety  requires  that  it 
should  never  be  used  in  kindling.  The  danger  lies  in 
pouring  it  on  after  the  fire  is  started,  or  when  there  are 
hot  ashes  in  the  bed  of  the  fire. 

Gas  is  a  much  cleaner  fuel  to  use  than  any  of  those 
already  mentioned.  There  are  many  varieties.  Natural 
gas,  like  kerosene,  is  found  in  the  ground  in  certain  parts 
of  the  country.  Its  cost  is  much  below  that  of  artificial 


102  FOOD  STUDY 

gas.  The  latter  gas  is  made  by  two  different  methods, 
one  giving  us  coal  gas,  the  other  water  gas.  Coal  gas  is 
obtained  by  heating  coal,  usually  semi-bituminous,  in 
retorts  so  as  to  drive  off  the  gas  which  it  contains.  Water 
gas  is  made  by  passing  steam  over  heated  coal ;  then  this  is 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  other  gases  in  order  to  make  it 
more  efficient.  Any  gas  is  dangerous,  because,  when  it  is 
mixed  with  a  certain  amount  of  air,  it  becomes  explosive, 
and  because  some  of  the  gases  present,  if  they  escape  un- 
burned,  are  highly  poisonous.  Water  gas  is  particularly 
poisonous.  Leaks  in  gaspipes  should  not  be  neglected. 
A  light  should  never  be  taken  into  a  room  where  there  is  a 
strong  smell  of  gas,  windows  and  doors  should  be  opened, 
and,  if  necessary,  the  gas  should  be  turned  off  from  the 
whole  house  by  the  main  stopcock  near  the  meter.  The 
surest  way  to  detect  small  leaks  is  to  paint  over  the  sus- 
pected places  with  strong  soapsuds,  and  notice  where  bub- 
bles are  blown. 

Acetylene  is  another  sort  of  gas  used  for  fuel  in  special 
stoves.  It  is  manufactured,  usually  on  a  small  scale,  by 
the  automatic  dropping  of  calcium  carbide  into  water. 
The  gas  requires  special  burners,  but  gives  a  brilliant  light. 
It  seems  still  to  be  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  it  is  highly 
poisonous  as  well  as  explosive. 

Gasoline  gas,  sometimes  called  air  gas,  is  made  by  pump- 
ing air  through  gasoline.  The  law  requires  the  gasoline 
tank  to  be  outside  and  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  house, 
although  the  mixing  chamber  where  more  air  is  added  may 
be  nearer.  The  gas  makes  an  excellent  fuel  and  does  not 
contain  carbon  monoxide,  the  compound  in  coal  gas  which 
is  most  poisonous. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  alcohol  which  are  common.  One, 
wood  alcohol,  ought  not  to  be  used,  because  its  fumes  are 
poisonous.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  the  other  variety 


COMBUSTION  AND  FUELS  103 

called  grain,  or  ordinary  alcohol,  because  that  is  so  highly 
taxed.  In  recent  years  a  way  out  of  this  difficulty  has 
been  found  in  the  use  of  denatured  alcohol.  This  is  merely 
grain  alcohol  to  which  some  substance  has  been  added  that 
makes  it  impossible  as  a  beverage  and  thus  it  escapes  hav- 
ing to  pay  the  heavy  tax  otherwise  imposed.  The  sub- 
stance added  in  no  way  impairs  its  use  as  a  fuel. 

The  use  of  electricity  for  cooking  has  certain  advantages 
which  are  furnished  by  none  of  the  fuels.  In  its  use  there 
are  none  of  the  products  of  combustion  to  get  rid  of,  there 
is  no  flame  to  set  fire  to  the  unwary,  no  matches  to  be 
looked  after,  and  its  control  is  simple.  It  is,  however,  gen- 
erally too  expensive  for  common  use.  Electricity  is  meas- 
ured by  the  kilowatt  hour,  the  cost  varying  from  about  ten 
to  fifteen  cents.  The  dials  on  an  electric  meter  are  not 
unlike  those  on  a  gas  meter  and  can  be  read  easily. 

REFERENCES 

WHITE.    "Fuels  of  the  Household." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce.     Bureau  of  Standards  Circular  No.  55, 
sections  on  Coal,  Wood,  and  Heating  Value  of  Fuels. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  different  substances  which  may  be  used  as  fuels  and 
arrange  them  in  the  order  of  their  kindling  temperatures. 

2.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  coal  used  in  the  house,  and,  briefly, 
characterize  each. 

3.  Determine  the  comparative  costs  of  the  different  fuels  used  in 
your  locality.     Which  is  most  commonly  used  and  why  ? 

4.  In  an  ordinary  wood  or  coal  stove,  what  becomes  of  the  products 
of  combustion  ?    Where  do  they  go  in  a  gas  range  ?    Account  for  the 
difference  in  arrangement. 

5.  How  is  illuminating  gas  manufactured  ? 

6.  What  source  of  heat,  sometimes  used  for  cooking,  is  not  the 
direct  result  of  combustion  ? 


104  FOOD   STUDY 

XIX 

DRAFTS   AND   THE   COAL   RANGE 

BAKED  AND  STUFFED  POTATOES 

A.  PREPARE  STUFFED  POTATOES. 

Wash  a  potato,  scrubbing  it  well  with  a  vegetable 
brush.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  soft.  Cut  a  piece  off 
the  top  and  remove  the  contents  with  a  fork,  taking  care 
not  to  break  the  skin.  Mash  the  contents  with  a  little 
butter,  salt  and  pepper,  and  moisten  with  hot  milk.  Re- 
place in  the  skin  and  reheat. 

B.  Class  Experiments.    DRAFTS. 

1.  What  is  the  effect  of  a  draft  in  a  stove?  Try 
the  following  experiments  to  find  out : 

a.  Put  a  lamp  chimney  over  a  lighted  candle, 
but  hold  it  so  high  that  it  will  not  touch 
whatever  the  candle  is  standing  on.  Take 
small  pieces  of  some  light  material  (threads 
of  cotton  wool  will  do)  and  hold  them  first 
above  the  chimney,  then  underneath  it.  Is 
the  draft  passing  through  the  chimney 
and  in  what  direction,  up  or  down? 

6.  Place  a  lighted  candle  in  a  saucer  of  water, 
and  put  the  lamp  chimney  over  it  so  that 
it,  too,  rests  in  the  water.  Why  does  the 
candle  go  out  ? 

c.  Fit  a  piece  of  pasteboard  lengthwise  into 
the  lamp  chimney.  Relight  the  candle 
and  replace  the  chimney,  but  set  it  so  that 
the  candle  flame  is  on  one  side  of  the  paste- 
board partition.  Why  does  the  candle 
behave  differently  ?  Test  the  draft. 


COAL  STOVES  105 

d.  Take  an  empty  pasteboard  shoe  box.  Cut 
two  holes  in  the  cover,  one  at  each  end. 
Each  hole  is  to  be  a  little  smaller  than  the 
bottom  of  a  lamp  chimney.  With  a  drop 
of  melted  wax,  stick  a  lighted  candle  to 
the  bottom  of  the  box  so  that  the  flame  will 
be  under  one  of  the  holes  when  the  cover 
is  put  on.  Cover,  and  put  a  lamp  chimney 
over  each  hole.  Test  the  draft  by  holding 
threads  of  the  light  material  over  each 
chimney. 

2.  Examine  a  wood  or  coal  stove,  or  range.  Is  there 
a  place  for  the  air  to  come  in  as  well  as  a  place 
for  the  products  of  combustion  to  pass  out? 
Can  the  size  of  these  openings  be  regulated  ? 

COAL  STOVES 

Since  air  or  oxygen  is  necessary  for  combustion,  there 
must  be  a  constant  supply  of  air,  as  in  a  draft,  for  a  fire 
to  continue  burning.  The  fire-box,  then,  in  a  stove  could 
not  be  air-tight.  The  air  coming  in  the  door  below  the 
fire  ordinarily  passes  out  directly  through  the  stove-pipe. 
The  check  draft  in  the  stove-pipe  may,  at  will,  be  left  wide 
open,  or  turned  so  that  it  nearly  closes  the  pipe.  Besides 
these  two  means  of  controlling  the  supply  of  air,  there  is  a 
third  way.  The  upper  door  into  the  fire-box  or  a  lid  on 
top  of  the  stove  may  be  left  open.  This  allows  the  cold 
air  to  blow  across  the  top  of  the  fire  and  cool  it  so  that  it 
will  burn  much  more  slowly. 

A  fire  merely  built  beside  an  oven  would  heat  it  un- 
equally, so  arrangements  are  made  to  allow  the  hot  gases 
from  the  fire  to  pass  entirely  around  the  oven  when  it  is 
desired  to  heat  it.  This  is  accomplished  by  shifting  the 


106 


FOOD   STUDY 


oven  damper.  This  closes  the  direct  opening  into  the 
stovepipe  and  so  forces  the  gases  to  pass  around  the  oven 
before  escaping. 


COAL  STOVE 

The  arrows  show  circulation  of  air  through  A,  directly  to  smoke- 
pipe,  and  through  B,  indirectly  around  oven. 

Notice  that  there  is  a  handle  which  may  be  fitted  on  a 
bar  from  the  grate.  By  turning  the  handle  the  grate 
may  be  rocked  back  and  forth  to  shake  down  the  ashes. 
The  fire-box  itself  is  lined  with  fire-proof  material  to  pro- 
tect the  iron  as  much  as  possible  from  gradually  burning 


COAL  STOVES  107 

out.  The  top  of  the  stove  cannot  be  so  protected,  so  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  fire  low  down  in  the  fire-box. 
This  means  a  saving  of  coal,  too,  and  generally  gives  as 
efficient  a  fire. 

Anything  spilled  on  a  stove  should  be  wiped  off  im- 
mediately with  soft  paper  or  cotton  waste.  If  necessary, 
soap  and  water  or  sapolio  can  be  used  later,  or,  when  cold, 
the  top  may  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  with  a  few  drops  of 
kerosene.  In  order  to  protect  the  iron  from  rusting,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  it  well  covered.  Blacking  is  usually 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  blacking  is  rubbed  on 
while  the  stove  is  cold  and  polished  when  it  is  warm. 
A  stove  that  is  to  be  out  of  use  for  some  time  is  still 
better  protected  by  covering  it  with  a  thin  coating  of 
oil  or  grease. 

It  is  interesting  to  consider  why  heating  a  portion  of  the 
air  causes  a  draft.  This  is  because  the  heated  air  expands 
so  that  the  amount  present  in  any  given  space  is  less  than 
it  was  before.  It  is  therefore  lighter.  But  this  light  air  is 
surrounded  by  cold  air,  which  is  heavier  and  so  is  pulled 
down  harder  by  the  attraction  of  gravitation  which  pulls 
everything  toward  the  earth.  The  cold  air,  being  pulled 
harder,  naturally  displaces  the  warm  air  and  so  pushes  it 
up.  It  is  often  said  that  hot  air  rises,  but  this  is  not 
strictly  true,  because  it  would  not  rise  at  all  if  it  were  not 
for  the  colder,  heavier  air  around  it. 

In  the  ventilation  of  rooms  advantage  is  taken  of  the 
fact  that  the  circulation  of  air  is  caused  by  differences  in 
temperature.  Hoods  are  often  installed  over  stoves  to 
carry  off  the  odors  of  cooking.  These  work  in  the  manner 
indicated  above,  the  hot  air  over  the  stove  being  pushed 
up  into  the  exit  pipe  by  the  colder  air  around.  The  hood 
itself  acts  merely  by  confining  the  warm  air  and  preventing 
it  from  scattering. 


108  FOOD   STUDY 


REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce.  Bureau  of  Standards,  Circular  No.  55, 
sections  on  Amount  of  Heat  used  in  Cooking  and  Some  Other 
Household  Operations,  Regulation  of  Stoves,  Ranges,  and  Other 
Heating  Appliances,  and  on  Oven  Thermometers. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  a  match  go  out  if  it  is  blown  or  shaken  too  hard  ? 

2.  Why  does  a  fire  burn  more  brightly  if  it  is  blown  with  a  bellows  ? 
Why  does  it  not  go  out  ? 

3.  Explain  why,  in  building  a  coal  fire,  paper  and  wood  are  also 
used.     Why  is  the  paper  twisted  and  crumpled  and  the  wood  laid 
criss-cross  ? 

4.  How  is  an  oven  heated,  and  how  is  the  temperature  of  an  oven 
controlled  ? 

5.  What  difficulty  occurs  if  the  ash  pan  is  allowed  to  get  too  full  ? 

6.  Why  should  ashes  and  soot  be  frequently  removed  from  the 
flues  back  of  and  under  the  oven  ? 

7.  Why  is  a  fire  lighted  at  the  bottom  and  not  at  the  top  ? 

8.  How  would  you  arrange  to  keep  a  fire  over  night?     Give  the 
reason  for  each  act. 

9.  What  is  the  danger  in  allowing  coal  gas  to  escape  ? 


XX 
FLAME   AND    GAS   STOVES 

CHOCOLATE  BREAD  PUDDING 

A.    PREPARE  CHOCOLATE  BREAD  PUDDING. 

Melt  one-fourth  of  a  square  of  chocolate  over  hot  water, 
add  half  a  cup  of  scalded  milk,  a  quarter  of  a  cup  of  bread 
crumbs,  quarter  of  an  egg  beaten,  one  tablespoon  of  sugar, 
a  pinch  of  salt,  and  a  few  drops  of  vanilla.  Bake  in  a 
buttered  dish  set  in  water  until  firm.  Serve  with  milk  or 
cream. 


GAS    STOVES  109 

B.    Class  Experiments.     CARE  OF  A  GAS  STOVE. 

1.  Take  a  gas  stove  apart  for  cleaning. 

2.  Blacken  the  stove. 

3.  Examine  a  Bunsen  burner.     Light  it,  and  alter- 
nately open  and  close  the  holes  at  the  base. 
Hold  a  cold  saucepan  for  a  moment  in  the  clear 
flame.     When  it  is  again  cold  hold  it  in  the  yellow 
flame.     What  effect  on  the  flame  has  the  admis- 
sion of  air  to  the  gas?     See  whether  air  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  burners  in  a  gas  stove. 

4.  When  the  burners  beneath  the  oven  of  a  gas 
stove  are  to  be  lighted,  it  is  always  safer  to  open 
the  oven  door,  or,  at  least,  set  it  ajar.    Try  the 
following  experiments  to  see  why : 

a.  Pour  a  scant  teaspoon  of  gasoline  (Warn- 
ing :  No  light  must  be  in  the  room  while 
inflammable  substances  such  as  this  are 
being  poured.  Why?)  into  a  dry,  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  stir  with  a  hot  glass  rod 
for  a  moment,  then  hold  a  lighted  stick  or 
long  splinter  in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle. 

6.  Pour  the  same  amount  of  gasoline  into  a 
small  shallow  dish  (the  top  of  a  small  tin 
can  will  do)  and  light  immediately.  Ex- 
plain the  difference  in  action  in  the  two 
experiments.  When  might  there  be  danger 
of  an  explosion  in  a  gas  oven?  What  dif- 
ference does  opening  the  door  make  ? 

GAS  STOVES 

A  flame  is  burning  gas,  but  the  flame  may  be  colorless  or 
yellow.  For  illuminating  purposes  a  yellow  flame  is  de- 
sirable, because  the  glowing  particles  of  carbon  in  the  flame 


110  FOOD   STUDY 

give  off  light.  But  for  cooking,  a  flame  as  nearly  colorless 
as  may  be,  is  best.  This  is  not  only  because  such  a  flame 
is  hotter,  but  because  the  other  flame  will  deposit  soot; 
and  unburned  soot  on  the  saucepans  means  wasted  fuel 
as  well  as  extra  trouble  in  washing.  Air  admitted  to 
the  gas  furnishes  an  amount  of  oxygen  sufficient  to  burn 
up  the  soot.  When  a  gas  stove  is  first  installed,  the 
plumber  making  the  connection  regulates,  by  means  of 
a  small  valve  in  each,  the  amount  of  air  necessary 
for  each  burner.  This  may  need  to  be  changed  later 
if  conditions  change;  but  usually  any  change  in  the 
flame,  particularly  a  sudden  one,  means  that  the  burner 
has  become  clogged,  perhaps  by  something  spilled  over  it. 
In  this  case,  if  it  does  not  readily  burn  clear  again,  the 
burner  should  be  detached  and  boiled  out  in  a  weak 
solution  of  washing  soda. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  experienced  may  be  in  the 
striking  back  of  the  flame.  By  this  is  meant  the  catching 
fire  of  the  gas  in  the  mixer ;  the  gas  burns  with  a  roaring 
sound  and  gives  off  a  disagreeable  odor  and  the  flame  is 
small  and  yellow.  This  can  be  remedied  only  by  turning 
the  gas  off  completely  and,  if  the  burner  is  hot,  giving  it 
time  to  cool  before  relighting.  The  striking  back  may 
occur  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  light  the  gas  too  soon  after 
it  is  turned  on,  if  the  gas  is  turned  too  low  so  that  there  is 
not  sufficient  pressure,  or  if  the  flame  is  blown  by  a  sudden 
draft.  A  stove  in  a  bad  position  between  windows  and 
doors  may  give  much  trouble  in  this  way,  but,  usually,  the 
difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  devising  a  screen  to  cut  off 
the  draft. 

Besides  remembering  to  open  the  door  of  the  oven  before 
lighting,  one  must  also  be  careful,  when  the  gas  is  turned 
low  in  the  oven,  that  the  flame  has  not  actually  gone 
out,  leaving  a  little  gas  flowing.  A  habit  should  be  formed 


GAS  STOVES  111 

of  always  looking  to  see  if  the  gas  is  still  lighted  under  these 
circumstances. 

The  heat  of  a  gas  stove  is  much  more  easily  regulated 
than  is  that  of  a  coal  stove,  and  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  waste  gas  by  lighting  it  ahead  of  time,  by  leaving  it 
lighted  when  it  is  not  in  use,  or  by  using  more  flame  than  is 
necessary.  Water  that  is  just  boiling  is  just  as  hot  as 
water  that  is  boiling  rapidly,  and  we  cannot  cook  any 
faster  with  one  than  the  other. 

Gas  is  a  convenient  fuel  to  use,  because  there  are  no 
coals  to  carry  and  no  ashes  to  take  care  of.  The  products 
of  combustion  are  supposed  to  be  pushed  through  the  pipe 
at  the  back  of  the  stove.  Probably,  however,  this  carries 
off  more  from  the  oven  than  from  the  upper  burners,  and 
a  hood  over  the  whole  is  much  more  effective,  because  it 
carries  off  the  odors  of  cooking  as  well. 

A  stop-cock  is  frequently  put  in  the  pipe  connecting  the 
stove  with  the  main  gas  pipe.  As  most  burners  leak  a  very 
little,  even  with  the  best  of  care,  this  is  a  good  practice, 
making  it  possible  to  turn  off  the  gas  completely  whenever 
the  stove  is  not  to  be  used  for  some  time.  In  case  of  a 
serious  leak,  its  use  is  obvious. 

Gas  is  metered,  or  measured,  by  the  cubic  foot.  It 
generally  costs  from  eighty  cents  to  a  dollar  and  a  half  for 
a  thousand  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  meter  is  ordinarily  read 
every  month  and  the  reading  of  the  month  before  sub- 
tracted from  the  present  reading,  in  order  to  determine 
how  much  has  been  used.  In  some  places  there  is  a  mini- 
mum charge  per  month  which  must  be  paid  even  if  no  gas 
has  been  used.  In  still  other  places  there  are  slot  meters 
which  allow  gas  to  pass  after  a  certain  coin,  usually  a 
quarter,  has  been  inserted,  the  gas  flowing  until  the 
amount  paid  for  has  been  used.  These  are  used  mostly 
in  tenement  houses  where  bills  are  hard  to  collect  and 


112 


FOOD   STUDY 


the  frequent  sending  of  a  man  to  turn  the  gas  on  and 
off  is  expensive. 

Reading  a  gas  meter  is  a  simple  matter,  and  in  case  of 
disagreement  over  bills  is  a  useful  accomplishment.  A 
gas  meter  shows  three  dials ;  the  hand  on  each  dial  turning 
in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  one  next  it,  in  order  to  help 
obviate  mistakes  in  reading. 


Each  division 
of  this  dial  de- 
notes 10,000 
feet. 


Each  division 
of  this  dial  de- 
notes 1000  feet. 


Each  division 
of  this  dial  de- 
notes 100  feet. 


How  TO  READ  A  GAS  METER.1 

Read  from  left-hand  dial  to  right,  always  taking  the 
figures  which  the  hands  have  passed.  The  dials  above, 
for  example,  register  3,  4,  6,  and,  adding  two  ciphers  for 
the  hundreds,  show  34,600  feet  registered.  To  ascertain 
the  amount  of  gas  used,  deduct  the  previous  register  as 
indicated  on  the  above  dials  by  dotted  hands,  1,  7,  3, 
from  the  present  register,  3,  4,  6,  as  follows : 

Register  by  dials  shown  above 3.4.6.00 

Registered  by  previous  statement,  indicated  by  the  dotted 

hands   ....     .     ..........  1.7.3.00 

Number  of  feet  used  between  readings 17,300  ft. 

If  you  wish  to  know  how  much  gas  is  being  used,  you 
need  only  watch  the  dial  at  the  right  hand,  each  figure 
of  which  means  100  feet. 

1  By  courtesy  of  the  Newton  and  Watertown  Gas  Light  Co. 


GAS  STOVES  113 

The  hand  on  this  dial  passes  from  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  to  0,  and  a  complete  revolution  shows  a  consump- 
tion of  1000  feet,  which  appears  on  the  dial  next  to  it 
on  the  left  as  1. 

The  average  burner  at  the  top  of  a  range,  when  turned 
on  full  force,  burns  about  two  cubic  feet  of  gas  an  hour, 
while  the  oven  burner  consumes  from  thirty  to  forty  cubic 
feet.  From  these  figures  the  advantage  can  readily  be 
seen  of  using  a  small  portable  oven  placed  over  a  top 
burner,  instead  of  the  large  oven.  An  oven  of  this  sort, 
costing  from  one  to  two  dollars,  soon  pays  for  itself,  espe- 
cially in  a  small  family,  although  the  saving  is  not  the  full 
difference  between  these  figures,  for  the  burners  in  either 
case  are  not  left  on  full  after  the  oven  is  once  hot. 

The  consumer  is  responsible  for  leaks  which  occur  in  the 
gas  pipes  on  his  side  of  the  meter,  and  it  is  for  his  advan- 
tage to  have  these  attended  to  promptly,  not  only  because 
of  the  danger,  but  because  the  escaping  gas  passes  through 
the  meter  and  is  registered  against  him.  Leaks  on  the 
other  side  of  the  meter  are,  of  course,  not  so  registered, 
and,  since  they  represent  loss  to  the  gas  company,  are 
attended  to  by  the  company. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce.    Bureau  of  Standards,  Circular  No.  55, 
sections  on  Gas  and  Electricity. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  a  gas  over  a  coal  range. 

2.  What  may  be  the  result  of  letting  milk  and  the  like  boil  over  on 
a  gas  stove  ? 

3.  Should  the  flame  in  a  gas  stove  appear  yellow  ? 

4.  Why  should  a  gas  burner  in  a  stove  be  turned  on  fully  before 
attempting  to  light  it  ?    Explain. 

5.  What  would  you  consider  wasteful  use  of  gas  in  a  stove  ? 


114  FOOD   STUDY 

6.  Explain  the  best  methods  of  extinguishing  if  the  following  catch 
fire: 

a.  clothing 

b.  kerosene  or  gasoline 

c.  alcohol  or  wood 

7.  What  is  the  best  treatment  for  burns  or  scalds? 

8.  Learn  to  read  an  electric  meter. 


XXI 
RADIATION   AND   CONDUCTION   OF   HEAT 

SCRAMBLED  EGGS  ON  TOAST 

A.    Class  Experiments. 

How  HEAT  PASSES  FROM  ONE  PLACE  TO  ANOTHER. 
1.  Radiation  of  heat. 

a.  Stand  in  front  of  a  hot  stove  or  fire  and  notice 
the  heat.     Then  hold  a  screen  between  your  face 
and  the  fire.     Do  you  feel  the  heat  on  your  face 
as  before?    Yet  the  air  that  surrounds  you  is 
still  warm.     Heat  that  passes  in  straight  lines 
directly  from  one  object  to  another  at  a  distance 
is  called  radiant  heat.    The  heat  is  said  to  pass 
by  radiation. 

b.  Determine  whether  a  bright,  clean  surface  or  a 
dull,  rough  one  radiates  heat  more  easily.     Take 
two  cheap  tin  cups,  one  that  is  bright  and  new 
and  polished  as  highly  as  possible,  the  other 
that  has  been  held  in  a  flame  until  it  is  rough  and 
dull  and  sooty.    Have  both  cups  at  room  tem- 
perature and  fill  each  with  equal  amounts  of 
boiling  water.    Test  with  thermometers  to  see 
which  cools  first.  Is  it  economical  of  heat  to  keep 
the  sides  of  a  saucepan  smooth  and  clean  ? 


RADIATION  AND  CONDUCTION   OF  HEAT      115 

2.  Conduction  of  heat. 

a.  Hold  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  wire,  or  an  iron 
poker,  in  a  flame,  while  you  hold  the  other  end 
in  your  hand.    Feel  how  the  heat  is  led  along 
or  conducted  from  one  part  of  the  metal  to 
another. 

b.  Are  all  substances  equally  good  conductors  of 
heat?    Repeat  (a)  with  a  glass  rod  or  a  long 
splinter  of  wood,  instead  of  the  wire.     Does 
the  other  end  grow  as  hot?    Hold  a  test  tube 
two-thirds  full  of  water  in  a  flame,  but  at  an 
angle  so  that  the  water  at  the  top  is  directly 
heated.     Can  you  get  the  water  at  the  top  hot 
while  the  water  at  the  bottom  is  still  cool  ?     Is 
water  a  good  conductor  of  heat  ?     Is  air  ? 

c.  Test  the  relative  conductivity  of  two  saucepans 
by  taking  two  of  different  materials  (as  for 
example,  one  of  aluminum  and  one  of  granite). 
Pour  into  them  equal  amounts  of  cold  water, 
and  place  them  over  two  flames  which  are 
equally  hot,  or  heat  first  one  and   then  the 
other.     Determine  which  boils  in  the  shorter 
time. 

B.    SCRAMBLE  AN  EGG. 

Serve  on  a  slice  of  toast.  Decide  how  the  heat  has 
been  transmitted  to  each  in  the  cooking. 

SCRAMBLED  EGG. 

Beat  an  egg  slightly,  add  a  tablespoon  of  milk,  and  sea- 
son with  pepper  and  salt.  Pour  into  a  pan  in  which  a 
teaspoon  of  butter  has  been  melted,  and  cook,  scrap- 
ing the  mixture  from  the  pan  as  it  sets,  until  all  is 
creamy. 


116  FOOD  STUDY 

FIRELESS  COOKERS 

There  is  an  old  story  of  a  man  who  was  held  to  be  a 
wizard  because  he  could  blow  both  hot  and  cold ;  he  blew 
on  his  hands  to  warm  them  and  on  his  soup  to  cool  it.  But 
fireless  cookers  can  do  just  as  seemingly  contrary  things, 
since  they  can  keep  hot  things  hot  and  cool  things  cool. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  that  they  be  constructed  in  such  a 
way  that  little  heat  can  pass  in  or  out  of  them. 

The  simplest  form  of  fireless  cooker  is  the  hay  box  ; 
literally  a  box  stuffed  with  hay  which,  with  the  air  spaces 
between,  makes  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  Usually,  the 
hay  is  kept  from  scattering  by  covering  it  with  stout  cloth. 
Whatever  is  to  be  cooked  is  placed  in  water  in  a  saucepan 
or  pail,  heated  to  boiling,  tightly  covered,  and  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  hay.  The  difficulty  with  this  type  of  cooker 
is  that  some  steam  with  the  odor  of  the  food  escapes  from 
the  cooking  vessel  and  is  absorbed  by  the  hay,  which  gradu- 
ally becomes  musty  and  must  be  replaced.  More  efficient 
cookers  are  lined  with  non-absorbing  material,  such  as 
enameled  metal,  which  can  be  washed  if  desired.  The 
metal,  being  a  fairly  good  conductor  of  heat,  even  when 
enameled,  must  be  made  double  with  an  air  space  between. 
Further  insulation  can  be  put  between  these  two  layers. 
This  type  is  commonly  furnished  with  soapstones,  which 
can  be  heated  as  hot  as  desired  and  placed  inside  to  increase 
the  heat  and  make  even  baking  possible. 

Of  course,  none  of  these  cookers  is  so  constructed  that 
no  heat  can  escape,  and,  gradually,  the  material  inside  be- 
comes cold.  The  efficiency  of  different  cookers  is  measured 
by  the  heat  that  is  retained  after  some  hours  of  standing. 
To  test,  equal  amounts  of  boiling  water  are  put  in  dif- 
ferent cookers,  and  the  temperature  of  water  is  taken  after 
a  given  number  of  hours. 


FIRELESS  COOKERS  117 

There  is  now  on  the  market  a  combination  of  a  gas  stove 
and  a  fireless  cooker  which  is  convenient.  The  range  can 
always  be  used  as  an  ordinary  gas  stove,  but  over  some  of 
the  top  burners  are  hung  cylinders  which  may  be  lowered 
at  will  to  cover  the  kettle  which  has  been  heating  over  the 
burner.  At  the  same  time,  the  flame  is  extinguished  by  the 
automatic  turning  off  of  the  gas.  The  oven,  too,  is  excep- 
tionally well  insulated  and  may  be  used  as  a  fireless  cooker 
also.  While  the  first  cost  of  these  stoves  is  more  than  that 
of  the  ordinary  types  of  ranges,  they  are  undoubtedly 
great  savers  of  gas. 

A  thermos  bottle  uses  the  same  principle  as  a  fireless 
cooker.  Since  heat  cannot  pass  in  any  more  readily  than 
it  can  pass  out,  both  may  be  used  to  keep  cold  drinks  cold 
by  protecting  them  from  the  heat  of  the  air.  Thermos 
bottles  are  made  with  a  vacuum  between  the  inner  and 
outer  layers,  and  are  more  resistent  to  the  passage  of  heat 
than  the  ordinary  cookers. 

Ice-boxes  and  refrigerators,  too,  are  efficient  in  the  meas- 
ure in  which  they  are  non-conductors  of  heat,  this  depend- 
ing on  the  kind  and  number  of  layers  of  material  used  for 
"packing."  Some  people  recommend  the  wrapping  of  the 
ice  in  the  ice-box  in  paper  of  some  heavy  material  to  keep  it 
from  melting  so  fast  by  protecting  it  from  the  heat  of  the 
air  inside  the  box.  This  must  not  be  done  if  it  checks  the 
melting  too  much,  for  it  is  the  melting  of  the  ice  which 
causes  the  low  temperature  in  the  box,  and  the  lowering 
of  the  temperature  is  in  proportion  to  the  melting,  the  heat 
of  the  air  being  rendered  latent  as  the  ice  changes  to  water. 

REFERENCES 

Any  good  school  textbook  in  Physics  on  heat. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  298,  "The  Fire- 
less  Cooker." 


118  FOOD   STUDY 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce.     Bureau  of  Standards,  Circular  No.  55, 
sections  on  Radiation,  Refrigeration,  and  Ice. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  the  iron  used  for  the  top  of  stoves  a  good  or  bad  conductor  of 
heat  ?    Does  this  matter  in  cooking  ? 

2.  Why  can  you  hold  your  hand  for  a  few  moments  in  an  oven 
whose  temperature  is  above  that  of  boiling  water  ? 

3.  How  are  steam  and  hot  water   radiators   usually  finished? 
Why? 

4.  Which  boils  more  quickly,  a  new  tin  kettle  or  one  which  is  dull 
on  the  bottom  ? 

5.  Describe  different  types  of  fireless  cookers. 

6.  Why  are  the  metal  bails  on  cooking  vessels  often  made  with 
wooden  handles  ? 

7.  What  was  the  old-fashioned  tea  cosey  and  how  did  it  work  ? 

8.  What  are  the  materials  commonly  used  in  making  ice-boxes  ? 

9.  Why  is  the  ice  compartment  at  the  top  instead  of  the  bottom 
of  an  ice-chest  ? 

10.  How  may  the  weight  of  a  piece  of  ice  be  determined  by  its 
measurements  in  inches  ? 


XXII 
CONVECTION   OF   HEAT 

BROILED  BACON 
POTATO  SALAD 

A.    How  HEAT  PASSES  FROM  ONE  PLACE  TO  ANOTHER. 

1.  Convection  of  heat. 

Put  cocoa  shells  or  sawdust  into  water  and  heat  —  in 
a  glass  beaker  if  you  have  it.  Notice  the  movement 
of  the  particles.  Does  this  indicate  movement  of  the 
water  also  ? 


HOT-WATER  SYSTEMS  119 

B.    PREPARE  POTATO  SALAD. 

Use  one  potato.    Serve  with  a  crisp  slice  of  bacon. 
Explain  carefully  exactly  how  the  heat  in  cooking  passes 
from  the  fire  to  the  potato :  to  the  bacon. 

POTATO  SALAD. 

Cut  a  boiled  potato  into  half -inch  cubes.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper,  mix  with  a  very  little  chopped  onion  and 
parsley,  add  two  teaspoons  of  oil,  and  one  teaspoon  of 
vinegar. 

BROILED  BACON. 

Lay  in  a  frying  pan  a  thin  slice  of  bacon  with  the  rind 
cut  off.  When  one  side  is  brown  turn  the  slice. 

HOT-WATER  SYSTEMS 

In  some  ways  the  passing  of  heat  by  convection  is 
harder  to  understand  than  the  two  other  methods  of  trans- 
fer. In  conduction,  heat  is  said  to  be  passed  on  from  one 
particle  to  the  next.  Water  is  known  to  be  a  poor  conduc- 
tor, although  nobody  knows  why  this  is  so.  In  the  experi- 
ment in  which  water  with  sawdust  in  it  was  heated  in  a 
beaker,  the  water  would  not  readily  pass  the  heat  from  one 
particle  to  the  next.  Instead,  the  water  at  the  bottom 
of  the  beaker  became  heated  by  contact,  and  heat  has 
exactly  the  same  effect  on  water  that  it  has  on  air.  The 
water  which  is  heated  expands  and  so  becomes  lighter. 
Then  it  is  pushed  up  by  the  colder  water  above,  which  is 
pulled  down  harder  by  gravity,  to  become  heated  in  its 
turn.  The  whole  of  the  water  becomes  hot,  not  by  the 
passage  of  heat  from  one  particle  to  the  next,  but  by  the 
movements  of  the  particles  themselves,  carrying  the  heat 
with  them.  Thus  a  circulation  of  the  water  is  started,  the 
hottest  water  rising  to  the  top.  So  a  water  boiler,  when  it 


120  FOOD   STUDY 

is  heating,  first  becomes  warm  at  the  top.     This  can  easily 
be  felt  by  placing  a  hand  on  the  outside  of  the  boiler. 

Boilers  and  hot-water  pipes  lose  heat  through  radiation 
and  contact  with  air,  and,  to  decrease  the  loss,  are  some- 
times jacketed  with  asbestos.  Asbestos  is  a  mineral  sub- 
stance, finely  shredded  and  pressed  into  a  sheet.  It  is  not 
only  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  but  is  fire-proof  as  well. 
It  is  fairly  expensive. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  KITCHEN  WARE 

In  choosing  utensils  for  the  kitchen  many  things  must 
be  taken  into  consideration.  First  of  all,  the  probable 
number  of  people  to  be  cooked  for  will  govern  the  size  of 
many  of  the  utensils.  Moreover,  the  style  of  living  will 
affect  the  kinds  and  number  of  them.  In  general,  for  the 
sake  of  storage  room  and  convenience  of  access,  the  num- 
ber of  utensils  should  be  kept  as  small  as  possible.  Utensils 
which  can  be  used  for  many  purposes  should  be  selected 
rather  than  those  that  fit  a  single  need,  unless  that  need  is 
frequent.  In  nearly  any  kitchen  are  to  be  found  a  number 
of  utensils  that  are  good,  but  are  so  seldom  needed  that 
they  are  never  used,  because  it  is  too  much  trouble  to  find 
and  wash  them  for  the  occasion.  Beside  these  consider- 
ations, convenience  in  handling,  ease  in  cleaning,  and 
durability  must  all  be  taken  into  account.  There  are 
saucepans  which  upset  easily ;  and  saucepans  with  handles 
with  sharp  edges  or  which  grow  hot  too  quickly ;  saucepans 
and  skillets  with  lips  on  only  one  side,  and  that  the  wrong 
one,  so  that  if  one  tries  to  pour  from  them  and  stir  at  the 
same  time,  the  stirring  must  be  done  with  the  left  hand. 
Ease  of  cleaning  demands  that  the  utensils  be  smooth, 
with  rounded  sides  and  no  seams  or  corners,  and  that  they 
should  be  wide  enough  to  permit  easy  access  for  cleaning. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  KITCHEN  WARE        121 

Meat  grinders  differ  markedly  in  this  respect,  some  being 
almost  impossible  to  get  clean  at  all.  With  larger  kettles, 
weight  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Durability  depends  partly  on  make  and  partly  on  the 
material  used.  Saucepans  are  usually  of  aluminum, 
enamel  or  granite  ware,  or  tin.  The  so-called  tin  utensil  is 
steel,  or  sometimes  wrought  iron  or  copper,  covered  with 
tin.  It  is  the  least  expensive  of  the  three  types  and  also 
the  least  durable.  Cheap  grades  are  easily  attacked  by  the 
weak  acids  in  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  even  the  better 
grades  are  not  proof  against  these  acids  when  hot;  but 
tin  vessels  are  light  and  good  conductors  of  heat.  Since 
tin  is  sufficiently  soft  to  scratch  easily  and  to  wear  off 
it  is  better  suited  for  baking  pans  and  bread  and  cake- 
boxes  than  for  saucepans. 

Granite  and  enamel  ware  is  made  by  coating  an  iron 
or  steel  foundation  with  a  glaze  which  is  not  unlike  glass 
in  its  nature.  The  quality  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  foundation,  upon  the  ingredients  of  the  glaze, 
and  the  number  of  coatings,  as  well  as  on  the  success  with 
which  every  particle  of  the  metal  is  covered.  The  dura- 
bility is  greatly  affected  by  the  care  that  is  exercised  in 
using  it.  Sudden  heating  or  cooling,  too  vigorous  scour- 
ing, and  dropping,  all  tend  to  make  it  crack  and  chip 
off,  exposing  the  metal  beneath. 

Aluminum  is  light,  and  also  an  excellent  conductor 
of  heat.  It  darkens  if  any  alkaline  substances  are 
used  in  cleaning  it,  and  should  be  scoured  inside  with 
fine  steel  wool,  not  soaked  in  washing  powders.  It  is 
affected  slightly  by  acids,  but  the  experts  tell  us 
that  the  amount  dissolved  is  insufficient  to  harm  us. 
It  warps  if  subjected  to  too  much  heat.  However,  it 
makes  a  durable  saucepan  and  probably  justifies  its 
cost. 


122  FOOD   STUDY 

REFERENCES 

CLARK.     "Care  of  the  House. " 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce.     Bureau  of  Standards,  Circular  No.  55, 
section  on  Water. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Examine  a  coal  range  and  see  whether  it  has  a  water-back  or  a 
water-front.     What  makes  the  water  pass  from  this  container  into 
the  boiler? 

2.  Make  a  diagram  of  the  hot-water  system  in  your  school  or  in  a 
house,  and  explain  the  circulation  through  the  pipes. 

3.  Of  what  material  is  the  boiler  made?    What  other  materials 
may  be  used  ?    Is  it  always  wise  to  use  the  water  from  the  hot-water 
faucet  for  cooking  or  drinking? 

4.  Has  your  boiler  a  faucet  connected  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
boiler?    What  is  its  use ? 

5.  What  is  the  water  rate  in  your  town  ?    If  meters  are  installed 
in  the  houses,  learn  to  read  one. 


xxm 

REVIEW   LESSON 

SECOND  BREAKFAST  —  OMELETS,  FRIED  MUSH  AND 
SYRUP 

A.    PREPARE  AND  , SERVE  A  BREAKFAST. 
Calculate  the  cost  per  individual.     Suggested  menu : 

Fruit,  fresh,  or  stewed  dried  fruit 

Omelet 

Fried  mush  with  syrup 
Tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa 

1.  OMELETS. 

a.  French  omelet. 

Use  the  same  proportions  as  in  scrambled  eggs. 
Have  the  bottom  and  sides  of  a  frying  pan  well- 


TABLE  MANNERS  123 

buttered.  Do  not  stir,  but  as  the  mixture  sets, 
draw  in  the  edges  with  a  knife  and  tip  the  pan 
so  that  the  liquid  portion  runs  into  the  bottom 
of  the  pan.  When  brown  on  the  bottom,  fold 
and  turn  upside  down  on  a  hot  platter. 
6.  Fluffy  omelet. 

Beat  the  yolk  and  seasoning  with  the  milk  and 
fold  in  the  egg  white,  stiffly  beaten.    When  it  is 
brown  on  the  bottom,  place  in  an  oven  or  under 
a  gas  broiler  to  dry  out  the  top  before  folding. 
Since  it  requires  some  skill  to  make  omelets  and  since 
large  ones  are  more  difficult  to  handle  than  smaller 
ones,  it  might  be  well  here,  for  practice,  to  have  one- 
egg  omelets  made  for  each  person  to  be  served. 

2.  FRIED  MUSH. 

Pack  mush  made  of  hominy  or  other  breakfast  cereal 
into  a  wet  pan,  until  cold.  Cut  into  slices ;  if  moist 
dip  into  flour,  and  brown  on  both  sides  in  a  little  fat 
in  a  frying  pan. 

3.  SYRUP. 

Boil  half  a  cup  of  brown  sugar,  three  tablespoons  of 
water,  and  half  a  teaspoon  of  butter.  When  moder- 
ately thick,  cool  and  flavor  with  a  few  drops  of  vanilla. 

TABLE  MANNERS 

It  is  commonly  said,  and  surely  with  much  truth,  that 
it  is  easy  to  judge  of  a  person's  training  by  his  ability  to 
write  a  correct  letter  and  his  manners  at  table.  While  such 
manners  are  partly  convention,  in  most  cases  there  is  a 
reason  underlying  the  convention.  For  example,  if  chairs 
are  close  together  and  two  people  start  to  sit  down  from 


124  FOOD   STUDY 

the  space  between  adjacent  chairs,  confusion  results. 
Therefore,  convention  says,  sit  down  and  get  up  from  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  chair.  If  the  chairs  are  placed  at  the 
table  so  that  the  front  edge  of  the  chair  is  in  line  with  the 
hanging  edge  of  the  table  cloth,  there  will  be  little  if  any 
adjustment  and  much  noise  will  be  avoided.  Unless  there 
are  place  cards  with  the  names  of  guests  the  hostess  indi- 
cates where  each  is  to  be  seated.  The  guest  of  honor,  if  a 
man,  is  placed  to  the  right  of  the  hostess ;  if  a  woman,  to 
the  right  of  the  host.  Host  and  hostess  are  seated  at  op- 
posite ends  of  the  table.  If  there  is  a  waitress,  the  hostess 
enters  the  dining  room  last  and  sits  at  the  end  nearest  the 
entrance  door,  but  if  there  is  no  waitress  she  places  her- 
self at  the  opposite  end  in  order  to  facilitate  serving.  As 
far  as  possible  men  and  women  are  arranged  alternately, 
at  a  formal  dinner  coming  out  in  couples.  A  hostess 
shows  her  social  skill  in  placing  congenial  people  together. 
All  stand  until  the  hostess  is  ready  to  sit  down. 

Silver,  as  explained  in  the  directions  for  table  setting, 
should  be  so  placed  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  telling 
which  article  should  be  used  at  any  time,  but  convention 
says  the  hostess  should  begin  to  eat  first  and  anybody  in 
doubt  has  only  to  follow  her  lead.  A  child  often  grasps 
the  handle  of  his  spoon  with  the  back  of  his  hand  up. 
When  he  raises  it  to  his  mouth,  this  throws  his  arm  up 
with  his  elbow  out  where  it  is  almost  certain  to  interfere 
with  his  neighbor.  Instead,  he  should  be  instructed  to 
hold  it  as  he  would  a  pen ;  then  it  will  be  raised  with  a 
wrist  movement  and  with  his  elbow  down.  The  soup 
spoon  is  dipped  into  the  soup  away  from  the  person,  so 
that  the  edge  which  is  covered  by  the  soup  will  be  the  higher 
edge  as  the  soup  is  eaten  and  there  will  be  less  tendency  to 
drip.  Soup  is  eaten  from  the  side  instead  of  from  the 
point  of  the  spoon,  because  the  spoon  is  too  large  to  go 


TABLE   MANNERS  125 

into  the  mouth  and  one  is  less  likely  to  put  it  in  too  far 
from  the  side.  Bread  and  crackers  are  not  broken  into 
soup,  because  this  is  apt  to  scatter  crumbs.  If  croutons 
or  oyster  crackers  are  served,  these  are  already  prepared 
and  may  be  dropped  into  the  soup  without  difficulty. 

The  hands  are  placed  as  far  up  on  the  handles  of  knives 
and  forks  as  possible,  so  the  fingers  will  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  soiled  parts.  The  fork  may  be  used  either  in  the 
right  hand,  as  the  spoon  is,  with  the  tines  up,  or  it  may  be 
used  in  the  left  with  the  tines  down.  It  is  not  good  form 
in  cutting  meat  to  hold  the  fork  in  an  upright  position, 
grasping  it  around  the  middle  of  the  handle  by  the  fingers. 
Perhaps  the  reason  for  this  is  that  it  is  not  nearly  so  secure 
a  hold  as  by  the  other  method.  The  knife  is  never  put 
into  the  mouth,  because  of  the  suggestion  of  cutting  the 
lips  or  tongue.  Since  it  is  not  used  in  the  mouth,  the  knife 
should  be  used  instead  of  the  fork  for  taking  butter  from 
one's  own  butter  plate. 

Only  such  food  is  eaten  with  the  fingers  as  will  not  soil 
them.  When  in  doubt,  do  not  use  them.  It  is  not  eti- 
quette to  cut  up  all  the  meat  before  beginning  to  eat,  as 
we  do  for  children.  There  should  be  time  between  bites 
for  the  necessary  preparation  of  the  next  mouthful.  A 
whole  slice  of  bread  should  not  be  spread  at  a  time, 
partly  for  the  same  reason  but  mainly  because  of  the 
difficulty.  Spreading  it  on  the  left  hand  gives  too  much 
contact  to  be  dainty. 

Plates  should  not  be  shifted  as  one  finishes  with  them,  — 
that  is  the  duty  of  the  waitress ;  to  do  so  looks  as  if  the 
person  concerned  were  in  too  great  a  hurry.  Nor  should 
they  be  piled  together.  In  passing  a  plate  for  a  second 
serving  the  knife  and  fork  should  be  left  on  the  plate 
because  there  is  no  other  place  to  put  them.  They  should 
be  placed  neatly  together  so  that  there  shall  be  room  on 


126  FOOD   STUDY 

the  plate  to  place  the  food  and  in  such  a  position  that 
there  shall  be  as  little  danger  as  possible  of  their  falling  off. 
When  the  main  course  at  dinner  is  finished,  the  knife  and 
fork  should  again  be  arranged  so  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  disturbing  them  in  lifting  the  plate.  At  no  time  during 
a  meal  should  the  knife  and  fork  be  laid  with  the  handles 
on  the  cloth  and  the  other  ends  on  the  plate.  This  may 
cause  liquids  to  run  up  toward  the  handles,  beside  implying 
that  the  plate  is  too  full. 

Salad  and  pie  are  eaten  with  a  fork.  If  cut  with  a  knife 
it  implies  that  the  salad  is  not  crisp  or  the  pie  is  not  tender. 
There  is  a  fashion,  not  always  followed,  of  eating  ice  cream 
with  a  fork  instead  of  a  spoon.  Perhaps  this  is  to  show 
that  the  cream  is  frozen  hard  enough  not  to  drip.  A  spoon 
should  not  be  left  in  a  cup,  because  that  makes  it  easy  to 
tip  the  cup  over. 

The  napkin  should  be  placed  on  the  lap  with  one  fold 
left  in  it  and  should  not  be  crumpled  up.  Dainty  people 
sometimes  contend  that  only  a  corner  of  the  inside  of  the 
fold  should  be  used  to  wipe  the  mouth  so  that  the  soiled 
part  shall  be  kept  inside.  But  perhaps  one  should  not 
have  such  a  soiled  mouth  as  to  make  this  necessary.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  wipe  the  lips  before  drinking  if  there  is 
danger  of  making  a  greasy  mark  on  the  glass,  and  after 
drinking  if  the  lips  are  at  all  wet.  This  is  especially 
necessary  after  drinking  milk,  but,  with  care,  there  is  no 
need  to  dip  much  of  the  upper  lip  in  the  milk. 

Noiselessness  in  eating  means  special  care  in  eating  soup 
not  to  suck  in  the  breath.  This  is  a  common  fault,  and 
there  are  many  jokes  about  the  man  who  will  make  his 
fortune  by  inventing  a  noiseless  soup  spoon.  For  the 
same  reason,  the  lips  must  be  kept  closed  in  chewing  and 
only  small  mouthfuls  should  be  taken.  One  should  eat 
slowly,  so  as  not  to  appear  too  hungry,  and  with  sufficient 


TABLE  MANNERS  127 

deliberation  to  appear  to  be  enjoying  and  appreciating 
what  is  served. 

When  asked  to  express  a  preference  in  regard  to  food, 
do  so  promptly  even  if  you  have  no  strong  feeling.  In 
offering  second  servings,  it  is  better  to  say  "May  I  give  you 
some  meat "  instead  of  "  some  more  meat."  "  Yes,  please  " 
or  "  Yes,  thank  you"  are  correct  forms  of  accepting ;  "  No 
more,  thank  you"  of  refusing.  "No,  thank  you,  I  would 
not  care  for  any"  is  awkward.  f 

If  at  table  articles  are  passed  around  by  the  people 
seated,  then  tho'ightfulness  in  seeing  that  others  are 
served  with  what  they  wish  is  necessary.  Serving  one's 
self  without  passing  the  dish  shows  selfishness.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  ask  to  have  something  passed  to  you,  do  not 
address  your  request  to  the  table  in  general,  but  to  the  one 
who  is  nearest  the  dish.  Then  the  others  are  not  unnec- 
essarily troubled  to  discover  who  can  pass  it.  At  most 
formal  dinners,  however,  guests  are  relieved  of  all  passing 
by  a  waitress  or  butler,  and  then  to  pass  a  dish  implies  a 
reflection  on  the  service. 

During  the  meal  one  should  sit  erect,  alertly  attending 
to  what  is  going  on.  Lolling  or  leaning  back  in  the  chair 
implies  one  is  fatigued  or  bored.  Elbows  off  the  table  is 
a  good  rule.  Most  of  our  movements  are  habits  and  the 
only  way  to  acquire  table  manners  is  by  constant  practice. 
We  cannot  be  careless  every  day  and  then  expect  to  go 
through  a  formal  occasion  without  a  slip.  We  shall  find  our- 
selves automatically  doing  the  thing  we  intended  to  avoid. 

Remarks  on  the  food  are  usually  considered  in  bad 
taste.  It  should  be  taken  for  granted  that  it  will  be  deli- 
cious, and  appreciation  can  be  shown  in  other  ways  than  in 
words.  Unpleasant  and  too  intimate  topics  of  conversa- 
tion should  be  avoided.  At  a  small  table  the  conversation 
ir  usually  general,  at  a  larger  party  where  a  general  con- 


128  FOOD   STUDY 

versation  can  hardly  be  heard,  conversation  alternately 
with  those  immediately  around  is  the  rule. 

The  handkerchief  should  not  be  in  evidence  at  table 
and,  if  possible,  should  not  be  used.  Picking  the  teeth 
or  putting  the  fingers  in  the  mouth,  touching  the  hair, 
or  even  the  face,  should  all  be  avoided. 

The  hostess  knows  when  the  meal  is  concluded,  and  so 
she  is  the  one  to  give  the  signal  for  leaving  the  table.  At 
some  dinners  the  ladies  go  first,  leaving  the  men  to  smoke. 
Everyone  rises,  however,  while  the  ladies  pass  out.  If  one 
is  not  to  be  present  at  the  next  meal  at  the  same  place,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  fold  the  napkin.  It  should  be  placed  on 
the  table  as  compactly  as  possible  and  not  spread  out,  so 
that  it  is  in  danger  of  coming  into  contact  with  soiled 
dishes.  If  the  napkin  is  folded,  this  should  not  be  done 
on  the  table. 

A  dinner  invitation  necessitates  a  call  afterward  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  courtesy. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  points  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining 
the  character  of  the  breakfast  to  be  served  to  a  given  family  ? 

2.  List  as  many  points  as  possible  that  seem  to  you  necessary  to 
make  breakfast  a  comfortable  meal. 

XXIV 
MEDIUM   WHITE   SAUCE 

CREAMED  CHIPPED  BEEF 
A.    Class  Experiments.     STARCH. 

1.  Boil  a  pinch  of  starch  with  about  a  tablespoon 
of  water ;  cool  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine.  Recall 
the  test  on  potato.  Repeat,  using  flour  instead 
of  starch. 


WHITE  SAUCE  129 

2.  Methods  of  mixing  starch  and  hot  liquids. 

a.  Stir  a  teaspoon  of  cornstarch  or  flour  into 
half  a  cup  of  boiling  water  and  note  results. 
Break  a  lump  and  examine  the  inside. 

b.  Pour  half  a  cup  of  boiling  water  on  a  tea- 
spoon of  starch  or  flour.  Does  it  still  lump  ? 

c.  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  flour  or  starch  with  a 
teaspoon  of  sugar,  then  pour  on  half  a  cup 
of  boiling  water.     Result  ? 

d.  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  starch  or  flour  with  a 
little  cold  water,  making  a  smooth  paste, 
and  pour  this  into  half  a  cup  of  boiling 
water,  stirring.     Result? 

e.  Melt  a  teaspoon  of  fat,  add  a  teaspoon  of 
flour  or  starch,  stir  thoroughly,  and  then 
pour  in  gradually  half  a  cup  of  boiling 
water,  stirring  as  you  pour. 

In  what  ways  could  you  successfully  mix  flour, 
butter,  and  hot  milk,  to  make  a  white  sauce? 

B.    WHITE  SAUCE. 

To  find  out  how  much  flour  is  used  to  thicken  a  cup 
of  milk  to  the  consistency  of  a  white  sauce. 

Melt  a  tablespoon  of  butter  in  a  saucepan  on  a 
fire,  add  a  tablespoon  of  flour,  and  then  pour  in 
hot  milk,  stirring  and  adding  it  gradually  until 
you  obtain  the  consistency  you  think  proper  for 
a  white  sauce.  Be  sure  to  keep  track  of  the 
amount  of  milk  used.  Calculate  how  much 
flour  would  be  needed  for  a  cup  of  liquid. 
Ordinarily  a  fourth  teaspoon  of  salt  to  a  cup  of 
liquid  would  be  added.  Why  is  it  unnecessary, 
considering  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  white 
sauce  in  (C)  ? 


130  FOOD   STUDY 

C.    PREPARE  CHIPPED  BEEF  ON  TOAST. 

Shred  the  beef  into  pieces,  cover  with  hot  water 
and  let  stand  a  minute  to  remove  some  of  the 
salt.  Then  drain,  and  reheat  the  beef  in  the 
sauce  made  in  (B).  Add  salt,  if  needed. 

WHEAT 

In  this  country  wheat  is  of  greater  importance  as  a  food 
for  man  than  is  corn  or  any  other  of  the  cereals.  Rice  is  so 
largely  used  in  eastern  countries,  China,  Japan,  and  India, 
that  possibly  more  rice  is  used  as  food,  taking  the  world  at 
large.  In  England,  Hutchison  estimates,  the  people  con- 
sume wheat  at  the  rate  of  six  bushels  for  each  inhabitant ; 
in  America,  Sherman  concludes  that  the  amount  used  is 
even  greater,  as  high  as  six  and  a  half  bushels  per  person. 
As  America  has  not  only  the  proper  conditions  of  climate, 
but  the  necessary  acres  on  which  to  grow  it,  wheat  is 
an  important  agricultural  product,  the  United  States 
exporting  it  in  large  quantities.  More  corn  is  actually 
grown,  it  is  true,  but  more  of  this  is  used  on  the  farms  for 
cattle  food,  so  that  the  wheat  crop  is  first  in  commercial 
importance. 

Wheat  is  classified  as  "hard"  or  "soft,"  according  as  its 
gluten  content  is  high  or  low;  as  "winter"  or  "spring," 
according  to  the  season  in  which  it  is  planted.  In  locali- 
ties where  the  winter  is  not  too  severe,  wheat  is  planted  in 
the  fall  and  allowed  to  winter  in  the  ground,  maturing  early 
in  the  summer.  Spring  wheat  is  not  planted  until  the 
winter  is  over  and,  consequently,  matures  later  in  the  sea- 
son. The  character  of  the  wheat  differs  with  the  variety 
and  the  locality  where  it  is  grown,  but,  in  general,  winter 
wheat  contains  more  starch  and  is  "softer"  than  spring 
wheat,  which  is  usually  preferred  for  making  bread  flour. 


WHEAT  131 

The  percentage  of  gluten  is  not,  however,  the  only  thing 
to  be  considered,  for  the  quality  of  the  gluten  is  of  even 
greater  importance  than  the  amount. 

Durum  wheat,  a  very  "hard"  variety,  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  macaroni,  spaghetti,  or  vermicelli.  These 
are  manufactured  by  forcing  the  flour,  mixed  with  water 
to  form  a  stiff  dough,  through  holes  in  the  cover  of  a  steam- 
heated  cylinder.  In  Italy,  the  shaped  paste  is  hung  on 
rods  to  dry,  sometimes  in  the  air,  sometimes  in  ovens.  It 
is  claimed  that  in  America  greater  care  is  taken  during  the 
drying  process  to  protect  the  paste  from  dust.  Good 
macaroni  should  be  cream  white,  should  break  without 
splitting,  should  not  lose  its  shape  and  should  swell  to 
about  three  times  its  bulk  when  cooked. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  No.  200.     "Courses 
in  Cereal  Foods." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  we  cook  starch? 

2.  What  are  the  proportions  for  making  an  ordinary  white  sauce  ? 
These  are  used  so  often  they  should  be  learned  thoroughly. 

3.  Review  the  different  ways  in  which  white  sauce  can  be  suc- 
cessfully put  together.     Give  instances  in  which  you  think  it  would 
be  advantageous  to  use  each  of  these  methods. 

4.  If  you  are  making  a  small  amount  of  white  sauce  by  the 
melted-butter  method,  cold  liquid  may  be  added.      If  you  are  mak- 
ing large  amounts  it  is  wiser  to  use  hot  liquid.     Account  for  the 
difference. 


132  FOOD   STUDY 

XXV 
THICK   WHITE   SAUCE 

SALMON  CROQUETTES 
CHEESE  SOUFFLE 

A.  PREPARE  SALMON  CROQUETTES. 

Make  a  third  of  a  cup  of  thick  white  sauce,  using  the 
proportions  of  four  tablespoons  of  flour,  and  two  table- 
spoons of  butter,  to  one  cup  of  milk.  Add  one-fourth  of  a 
teaspoon  of  salt. 

Use  half  of  the  white  sauce  to  prepare  salmon  croquettes, 
using  about  twice  as  much  fish  (flaked)  as  sauce.  Sea- 
son with  lemon,  salt,  and  paprika.  Spread  on  a  plate  to 
cool,  shape,  then  dip  in  crumbs,  in  egg  (beat  an  egg 
slightly  with  a  fork,  add  two  tablespoons  of  water),  and 
in  crumbs  again.  Fry  in  deep  fat.  When  fat  will  turn  a 
piece  of  bread  a  golden  brown  in  forty  seconds,  it  is  the 
right  temperature  for  frying  food  that  is  already  cooked. 
Find  out,  with  a  thermometer,  what  temperature  this  is. 
(Be  careful  to  wipe  off  the  thermometer,  but  do  not  wash 
until  cool  for  fear  of  breaking.)  Drain  the  croquettes 
on  absorbent  paper,  and  do  not  pile  on  top  of  one  another 
while  hot. 

B.  PREPARE  CHEESE  SOUFFLE. 

Use  the  rest  of  the  white  sauce  to  prepare  cheese 
souffle.  Add  to  the  white  sauce  one  and  a  half  tablespoons 
of  grated  cheese,  a  little  paprika,  and  half  the  beaten  yolk 
of  an  egg.  Then  fold  in  half  the  stiffly-beaten  white  of  an 
egg.  Bake  in  a  buttered  earthenware  dish  placed  in  a 
pan  of  water.  Serve  at  once. 


FRYIXG  CROQUETTES 


Kidney  Rib  French 

LAMB   CHOPS 


BREAD  FLOUR  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE   133 


BREAD  FLOUR  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE 

The  wheat  kernel  consists  of  a  number  of  different  parts. 
The  outside  layer  is  known  as  bran  and  is  removed  in  the 
process  of  making  white  flour.  This  bran  consists  of  cellu- 
lose and  mineral  matter,  with  a  higher  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen than  is  found  in  wheat 
flour.  But  this  nitrogen 
is  found  largely  in  the 
aleurone  or  inner  layer  of 
the  bran,  and  is  enclosed 
in  cells  which  are  so  thick- 
walled  that  probably  not 
much  of  it  could  be  di- 
gested if  eaten.  The 
germ  is  rejected,  because 
it  contains  so  large  a  per- 
centage of  fat  that  flour 
containing  it  would  be 
less  likely  to  keep.  The 
portion  of  the  kernel,  after 
the  bran  is  removed  and 
without  the  germ,  is  known 
as  the  endosperm.  This 
endosperm  is  the  portion 
which  is  ground  to  make 
white  flour.  It  consti- 
tutes about  eighty  per  cent  of  the  whole  kernel  and 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  starch,  —  about  seventy- 
five  per  cent  —  besides  nearly  twelve  per  cent  protein, 
about  one  per  cent  fat,  and  half  of  one  per  cent  of  mineral 
matter.  It  is  curious  to  note  that  even  so  dry  a  sub- 
stance has  about  thirteen  per  cent  of  water  present. 

The  length  of  the  process  of  making  flour  varies  in  the 


GRAIN  OF  WHEAT 

Diagram  of  section :  a,  bran ; 
6,  aleurone  layer ;  c,  germ  or  em- 
bryo ;  d,  endosperm. 


134  FOOD  STUDY 

different  mills.  In  the  old  process,  the  wheat  kernels  were 
ground  between  millstones,  the  crushed  product  was  sifted 
first  through  coarser  material  to  remove  the  bran,  next 
through  bolting  cloth  to  remove  the  material  of  interme- 
diate size  which  was  called  middlings.  What  went  through 
the  bolting  cloth  was  flour.  Now,  after  the  wheat  has  been 
screened  to  remove  foreign  substances  and  cleaned,  it  is 
put  between  corrugated  rollers  which  flatten  and  partially 
crush  the  kernel,  producing  a  small  amount  of  flour.  This 
is  known  as  the  first  break.  After  the  flour  has  been 
sifted  out,  the  rest  is  again  crushed  between  rollers  which 
are  this  time  a  little  closer  together.  These  processes 
are  repeated,  some  mills  using  so  many  rollers  and  sieves 
that  there  may  be  forty  different  "streams"  of  flour  from 
the  grinding.  These  "streams"  are  finally  mixed  to- 
gether to  form  the  various  grades  of  flour  desired.  In  the 
higher  grades  of  flour,  the  gluten  is  more  elastic  and 
better  for  bread-making. 

REFERENCES 
Booklets  sent  out  free  by  well-known  flour  mills. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Consult  various  cook  books,  and  then  make  a  table  showing  the 
kinds  of  fat,  starch,  liquid,  and  seasoning,  which  may  be  used  in 
preparing  sauces  for  vegetables,  fish,  meat,  and  puddings  that  have 
a  white  sauce  basis. 

2.  How  many  pounds  are  there  in  a  barrel  of  flour  ?    In  a  bag  ? 

3.  What  does  the  same  grade  of  flour  cost  by  the  pound,  the  bag, 
and  the  barrel  ? 

4.  What  are  the  trade  names  of  some  of  the  best-known,  high 
grade  flours  9 


CORNSTARCH  MOLD  135 

XXVI 

STARCH 

CORNSTARCH  MOLD 
MACARONI  AND  TOMATO  SAUCE 

A.  Class  Experiments. 

Mix  half  a  tablespoon  of  cornstarch  with  quarter  of  a 
cup  of  cold  water,  and  cook,  stirring  and  adding  measured 
amounts  of  water  until  you  obtain  the  same  consistency 
as  a  medium  white  sauce.  What  is  the  comparative 
thickening  power  of  flour  and  cornstarch  ? 

B.  CORNSTARCH  MOLD. 

Make  a  cornstarch  mold,  using  a  cup  of  milk,  one 
tablespoon  of  sugar,  a  saltspoon  of  salt,  and  as  much  corn- 
starch  as  would  give  the  consistency  of  the  thick  white 
sauce  used  in  the  last  lesson.  How  will  you  combine  the 
ingredients?  Cook  five  minutes  over  the  fire,  stirring 
constantly ;  then  cook  covered,  over  water,  until  the  "raw" 
taste  has  disappeared.  This  will  take  at  least  fifteen 
minutes.1  Remove  from  the  fire,  add  a  few  drops  of  vanilla 
and  pour  into  a  wet  mold,  and  let  stand  until  cold.  Serve 
with  chocolate  sauce. 

CHOCOLATE  SAUCE. 

Melt  a  quarter  of  a  square  of  chocolate  with  a  quarter  of 
a  teaspoon  of  butter.  Add  three  tablespoons  of  water,  a 
half  cup  of  sugar  and  a  few  grains  of  salt.  Boil  until 
moderately  thick;  cool,  and  flavor  with  a  few  drops  of 
vanilla. 

1  In  cooking  so  small  a  quantity  so  long  a  time,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  allow  for  the  increased  loss  by  evaporation. 


136  FOOD   STUDY 

C.    PREPARE  MACARONI  AND  TOMATO  SAUCE. 

Boil  until  tender  a  quarter  of  a  cup  of  macaroni  broken 
into  inch  pieces  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  with  half  a 
teaspoon  of  salt.  Drain  and  pour  some  cold  water  over  it 
to  prevent  the  pieces  from  sticking  together.  Reheat 
in  an  equal  amount  of  tomato  sauce.  Make  this  as  you 
would  white  sauce,  but  use  the  juice  from  canned  tomato 
for  the  liquid.  Since  macaroni  is  starchy,  use  a  propor- 
tion of  flour  that  will  make  a  sauce  between  thin  and 
medium. 

CORNSTARCH 

The  manufacture  of  cornstarch  is  interesting  because  so 
many  other  products  are  made  at  the  same  time.  The 
outline  of  the  process  is  as  follows. 

After  the  corn  is  cleaned,  it  is  soaked  or  steeped  in  warm 
water  for  a  couple  of  days.  In  order  to  prevent  its  spoiling, 
a  little  sulphurous  acid  is  added.  When  the  corn  is  suffi- 
ciently swollen,  it  is  ground  coarsely  so  as  to  break  up  the 
kernel  without  breaking  the  germ.  The  germ  is  so  rich  in 
both  protein  and  fat  that  it  is  most  easily  taken  care  of  by 
itself.  All  that  is  necessary  to  separate  it  after  the  grinding 
is  to  run  the  ground  mass  into  separators,  when  at  a  certain 
density  of  the  liquid  the  germ,  light  on  account  of  its  oil 
content,  floats  on  top  of  the  water,  while  the  ground  hulls 
and  starch  settle  and  are  drawn  off  from  the  bottom.  The 
next  problem  is  the  separation  of  the  starch  from  the  hulls. 
It  is  necessary  to  grind  the  mass  up  much  more  finely  than 
before,  then  the  semi-liquid  is  passed  over  sieves  of  bolting 
cloth  with  a  200  mesh,  which  is  shaken  mechanically  so 
that  the  particles  of  the  hull  are  sifted  out,  the  starch  itself 
passing  through.  The  hulls  are  separated,  re-ground,  and 
re-sifted,  and  sprayed  with  water  during  the  process,  in 
order  to  get  out  all  the  starch  possible.  The  starch  and 


CORNSTARCH  137 

water  that  goes  through  the  sieve,  however,  is  still  mixed 
with  protein.  This  liquor,  at  just  the  right  density,  is 
passed  over  long  tanks  with  slightly  inclined  bottoms. 
As  it  flows,  the  starch  settles  and  rolls  along  the  inclined 
surface,  thus  washing  itself. 

The  water  containing  the  protein  is  usually  mixed  with 
the  hulls  and  the  dried  product  is  used  for  feed  for  cattle. 
The  separated  germ  is  pressed  to  extract  some  of  the  oil. 
Corn  oil  is  used  as  food  only  to  a  small  extent,  but  it  is 
used  for  making  soap  and  in  other  industrial  processes. 
The  germ  with  the  oil  partly  expressed  is  mostly  exported 
to  Europe  as  oil-cake,  and  is  used  for  feeding  stock. 

After  all  the  processes  the  starch  has  gone  through,  it 
is  still  crude.  It  may,  at  this  stage,  be  used  to  make  corn 
syrup  and  glucose,  but  otherwise  it  must  be  still  further 
refined.  Too  much  protein  remains  in  it,  so  that  it  is 
further  washed,  sometimes  with  water  alone,  sometimes 
with  dilute  alkali.  Often  the  plant  which  separates  all 
the  direct  products  of  corn  also  manufactures  dextrine  as 
well  as  corn  syrup  and  glucose. 

Cornstarch  is  less  difficult  to  mix  with  liquids  than  is 
flour,  because  it  does  not  contain  the  gluten  which  flour 
does.  When  hot  water  is  poured  over  starch,  it  gelatinizes 
the  starch  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  The  starchy 
grains  form  a  mass  which  is  impervious  to  water  and  so 
prevents  the  water  reaching  all  of  the  starch  grains.  This 
can  be  prevented  by  mixing  some  other  substance  with 
the  starch  before  pouring  on  the  water,  because  the  other 
substance  separates  the  grains  and  gives  them  room  to  swell 
without  sticking  together.  As  raw  starch  is  both  less 
digestible  and  much  less  palatable  than  cooked,  prevention 
of  lumping  is  important. 

In  spite  of  all  the  purifications  cornstarch  has  undergone 
in  its  manufacture  it  has  a  characteristic  flavor  which 


138  FOOD   STUDY 

everyone  readily  recognizes  and  which  must  be  due  to 
some  other  substance  mixed  with  the  starch.  Only  after 
long  cooking  does  this  flavor  disappear. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  two  reasons  why,  in  making  the  pudding,  the  cornstarch 
is  covered  during  the  long  cooking  ? 

2.  Why  does  cornstarch  require  so  much  longer  cooking  than 
flour? 

3.  If  you  were  to  make  a  large  amount  of  cornstarch  pudding 
why  would  you  not  mix  the  cornstarch  with  all  of  the  cold  milk  ? 
How  would  you  proceed  ? 

4.  What  ways  can  you  think  of  to  vary  cornstarch  pudding, 
besides  serving  it  with  different  sauces  ?     Consult  cook  books. 

5.  How  do  macaroni,  spaghetti,  and  vermicelli  differ  ?    What  do 
the  names  mean  ? 

6.  Study  the  cost  of  various  macaronis  to  be  found  in  your 
markets.     Do  cost  and  quality  correspond  ? 

7.  Consult  cook  books  and  make  a  list  of  ways  in  which  maca- 
roni may  be  served. 

8.  How  does  a  sauce  thickened  with  cornstarch  differ  in  appear- 
ance from  one  thickened  with  flour  ? 

9.  Since  sauces  are  not  cooked  a  long  time,  would  you  choose  corn- 
starch  to  thicken  a  sauce  which  was  not  highly  flavored  ?    Why  ? 

10.  How  does  laundry  starch  differ  from  the  cornstarch  used  for 
cooking  ? 

11.  Why  is  laundry  starch  in  Europe  manufactured  from  potatoes 
and  not  from  corn  ? 


CREAMED  VEGETABLES  139 

XXVII 
CREAMED   VEGETABLES 

PEAS  AND  CARROTS 

A.  Class  Experiments. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  MOIST  HEAT  ON  STARCH. 

1.  Mix  half  a  teaspoon  of  starch  with  a  third  of  a  cup  of 
water.    Let  it  stand.    Does  the  starch  settle  out? 
Pour  the  mixture  through  a  filter  paper  placed  in  a 
funnel.    Test  the  water  which  passes  through  for 
starch.     Is  starch  soluble;    that  is,  does  it  dissolve 
in  cold  water? 

2.  Examine  a  few  grains  of  corn  starch  under  a  micro- 
scope.   Of  wheat   starch    (flour).     Compare   them 
with  the  microscopic  appearance  of  potato  starch. 

3.  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  starch  with  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of 
water.    Heat  to  180°  F.,  using  a  thermometer  to 
determine  the  temperature.     Pour  off  a  part,  and 
heat  the  remainder  to  boiling.    Taste  each.     Cool, 
and  examine  under  a  microscope  the  starch  in  both 
stages  of  cooking. 

B.  CREAMED  PEAS  AND  CARROTS  IN  TOAST  BOXES. 
Wash  and  scrape  a  carrot,  and  boil  it  in  salted  water 

until  tender.  If  the  carrot  is  very  large,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  cut  it  up  in  order  to  have  it  cook  in  a  short  time, 
but  this  is  not  the  ordinary  practice.  While  the  carrot  is 
cooking,  make  a  white  sauce,  using  the  same  proportions 
as  in  the  last  lesson,  but  mix  as  follows :  cream  the  butter 
and  flour  together,  add  the  hot  milk  slowly,  stirring  hard. 
Add  equal  amounts  of  diced  carrots  and  canned  peas. 
Serve  in  toast  boxes.  These  are  made  by  cutting  a  cube 


140  FOOD  STUDY 

of  the  desired  size,  say  three  inches,  out  of  the  crumb  of  a 
stale  loaf  of  bread,  hollowing  it  from  one  side,  and  brown- 
ing it  in  the  oven. 

CANNED  VEGETABLES 

Vegetables  are  much  more  difficult  to  can  at  home  than 
fruits.  This  is  possibly  because  of  the  greater  amount  of 
acid  present  in  fruits.  Tomatoes,  in  common  parlance 
called  a  vegetable  although  they  are  really  the  fruit  of  the 
tomato  plant,  are,  like  the  fruits,  easy  to  can.  The  diffi- 
culty in  canning  vegetables  is  caused  by  the  spore-forming 
bacteria.  Intermittent  sterilization  may  be  resorted  to, 
and  the  cans  of  vegetables  boiled  for  an  hour  on  three 
successive  days ;  or  very  long  boiling  may  be  tried,  perhaps 
for  five  hours,  on  a  single  day.  This  really  overcooks  the 
vegetable,  so  that  a  better  product  is  obtained  by  heating 
for  a  shorter  time  under  pressure,  when  the  temperature 
is  higher  than  that  of  boiling  water. 

In  the  commercial  process  the  latter  method  is  used. 
The  cans  are  filled  with  the  vegetables,  the  caps  are 
soldered  on,  leaving  only  a  small  hole  for  the  escape  of 
steam.  The  can  is  then  "processed",  as  it  is  called, either 
by  cooking  it  in  steam  under  pressure  or  in  a  solution  of  a 
substance  like  calcium  chloride  or  rock  salt,  which  boils 
at  a  higher  temperature  than  water  alone.  This  higher 
outside  temperature  makes  the  contents  of.  the  can  itself 
boil.  The  length  of  time  this  process  is  carried  on  depends 
upon  the  particular  vegetable  and  how  long  it  has  stood 
after  picking,  before  being  canned.  When  perfect  steriliza- 
tion is  probably  effected,  the  tiny  hole  in  the  can  is  soldered. 
Some  modern  factories  leave  more  than  one  hole  to  be 
soldered,  and  the  old  rule  that  more  than  one  hole  means 
that  the  cans  have  started  to  spoil  and  been  re-sterilized 
no  longer  holds.  After  sealing,  the  cans  are  inverted  to 


CANNED  VEGETABLES  141 

detect  possible  leaks.  The  cans  are  usually  labeled  upside 
down,  and  the  contents  of  cans  of  some  sorts  of  material 
are  more  easily  removed  if  opened  at  the  bottom. 

All  canned  goods  are  better  for  being  opened  half  an 
hour  or  so  before  using  and  allowed  to  air.  If  the  can  is 
tin,  the  contents  should  be  poured  out  as  soon  as  it  is 
opened,  because  there  is  a  chance  of  any  acid  in  them 
acting  on  the  tin  in  the  presence  of  air.  Such  canned 
goods  as  peas  and  beans  have  a  better  flavor  if  drained 
from  the  liquid  in  which  they  are  packed,  and  washed  by 
having  fresh  water  poured  over  them.  To  prevent  waste 
of  material,  the  liquid  may  be  added  to  soup. 

REFERENCES 
OLSEN.    "Pure  Foods." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fanners'  Bulletin  No.  359.     "Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home." 
Farmers' Bulletin  No.  73.    Exp.  Sta.  Work,  Vol.  IV,  p.  3.    "Swells 
in  Canned  Vegetables." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  should  be  the  price  of  cans  of  different  kinds  of  vege- 
tables? 

2.  If  one  has  storeroom  for  them,  is  there  advantage  in  buying 
canned  goods  in  quantity  ? 

3.  How  much  do  the  ordinary-sized  cans  of  different  vegetables 
contain  ? 

4.  What  differences  are  there  between  the  different  grades  of  the 
same  canned  vegetables  ? 

5.  What  is  the  best  use  to  make  of  the  cheaper  grades  ? 

6.  Suggest  vegetables  which  would  be  good  creamed. 


142  FOOD  STUDY 

XXVIII 
THIN   WHITE   SAUCE 

CREAM  SOUPS: 
CELERY  AND  POTATO 

A.  MAKE  CROUTONS  IN  THE  OVEN. 

B.  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  CREAM  SOUPS. 

Wash  and  scrape  some  celery,  and  cut  it  into  half-inch 
pieces.  (Often  only  outside  stalks  and  leaves  are  used, 
while  the  white,  crisp  pieces  are  kept  to  serve  uncooked.) 
Cook  about  half  a  cup  of  celery,  to  which  a  small  piece 
of  onion  may  be  added  if  desired,  in  boiling  salted  water. 
When  soft,  rub  through  a  sieve.  Make  a  white  sauce 
using  one  tablespoon  each  of  butter  and  flour,  and  exactly 
half  a  cup  of  celery  water.  Thin  with  milk,  measuring 
the  amount  used,  until  you  obtain  the  right  consistency 
for  a  cream  soup.  Adding  the  amounts  of  water  and  milk 
used,  what  do  you  determine  is  the  usual  proportion  of 
flour  to  liquid  needed  to  thicken  a  soup  ? 

C.  PREPARE  POTATO  SOUP. 

To  two  tablespoons  of  mashed  potato,  add  half  a  cup 
of  thin  white  sauce.  Add  milk,  measuring  the  amount, 
to  make  a  soup  of  the  right  consistency.  Serve  with 
croutons.  How  much  milk  was  used  all  together  ?  Why 
is  more  needed  here  in  proportion  to  the  flour  than  in 
celery  soup?  To  make  the  soup  richer,  part  cream  may 
be  used,  or  white  stock  instead  of  water,  or  a  spoon  of 
well-beaten  egg  white  or  of  whipped  cream  may  be 
placed  in  the  serving  dish  before  the  soup  is  poured 
into  it. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES  143 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES 

The  term  vegetable,  as  it  is  commonly  used,  includes 
many  foods  which  botanically  would  be  classed  elsewhere. 
Rice,  macaroni,  French  chestnuts,  and  even  tomatoes 
and  cucumbers  are  all  examples  of  such  foods.  At  least, 
it  will  be  admitted  that  if  they  are  not  vegetables  they 
are  used  as  such. 

Classifications  of  vegetables  are  many.  One  is  made 
according  to  the  part  of  the  plant  from  which  they  come. 
For  example : 

Bulbs :  garlic,  onions. 

Fruits :  cucumber,  egg  plant,  squash,  tomato. 

Leaves :  Brussels  sprouts,  cabbage,  lettuce,  spinach. 

Roots :  beets,  carrots,  oyster  plant,  sweet  potato,  turnips. 

Seeds :  beans,  corn,  lentils,  peas,  rice. 

Stems :  asparagus,  celery,  chives. 

Tubers :  Jerusalem  artichokes,  white  potato. 

Although  this  is  of  interest,  it  is  not  much  help  to  us  from 
the  food  standpoint. 

Another  classification,  made  according  to  food  value, 
gives  us  succulent,  or  watery,  as  opposed  to  starchy  vege- 
tables. This  is  sometimes  misleading,  if  one  concludes 
from  it  that  watery  vegetables  have  little  or  no  food  value. 
Not  only  do  they  contain  valuable  mineral  salts,  but,  as 
Sherman,  in  his  book  on  Food  Products,  justly  says,  "Even 
those  fruits  and  green  vegetables  that  are  eaten  for  flavor 
with  little  thought  of  food  value,  and  which  are  often 
thought  of  as  luxuries  because  of  their  high  water  content, 
will  often  be  found  to  furnish  energy  at  no  greater  cost 
than  many  of  the  familiar  cuts  of  meat,  when  account  is 
taken  of  the  extent  to  which  the  fat  of  the  meat  is  usually 
rejected  or  lost  in  cooking  or  at  the  table."  This 


144 


FOOD   STUDY 


USDeportment  of  Agriculture 
Offieecf  Experiment  Stations 

A.C.True:  Director 


Prepared  fay 

C.FTLANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  frwestigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

ODID     ^3  Essa     mm     jMfg>] 


rnrm 

Water 


Fuel  Value 

SSS& 


ONION 


FUEL    VALUE 

c 

385  CALDRIE5  PP?    POUND 


85  CALORICS 
PCR  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OP  VEGETABLES 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  VEGETABLES  145 

classification,  however,  is  suggestive,  especially  in  menu-  „ 
making.     It  is  much  better  to  serve  a  variety  of  vegetables 
together,  rather  than  too  many  from  one  class.     Rice, 
potatoes,  and  macaroni  are  much  better  substituted  for. 
one  another  than  served  at  the  same  time. 

An  old  classification  as  to  season  shows,  at  least,  how 
times  have  changed,  for  with  greater  facilities  for  trans- 
portation from  both  North  and  South,  together  with  hot- 
house vegetables,  the  display  in  a  market  no  longer  follows 
the  old  list.  Celery,  for  example,  was  given  as  a  fall  and 
winter  vegetable,  whereas  it  is  now  to  be  found  most  of  the 
year. 

The  classification  which  helps  most  in  cooking  is  un- 
doubtedly that  into  mild-  and  strong-flavored  vegetables.  - 
In  the  first,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  retain  as  much 
of  the  flavor  as  possible.     In  the  latter  case,  the  result 
may  be  improved  if  some  of  the  strong  taste  is  removed. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  256.     "Prepara- 
tion of  Vegetables  for  the  Table." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  as  many  of  the  common  vegetables  as  you  can 
that  would  contain  sufficient  starch  to  have  a  thickening  effect  in 
making  soup. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  succulent  vegetables  which  you  think  would 
make  good  soup.     How  would  a  recipe  for  making  cream  soup  from 
these  differ  from  one  for  making  soup  with  starchy  vegetables  ? 

3.  How  could  the  materials  for  making  a  cream  soup  be  combined 
otherwise  than  by  mixing  the  flour  with  the  melted  butter  ?    If  you 
were  making  a  larger  quantity  of  soup,  say  a  quart,  which  method 
would  seem  to  you  easiest  ? 

4.  Using  a  cook  book,  make  a  list  of  seasonings  which  are  desirable 
to  use  in  soups. 


146  FOOD   STUDY 

XXIX 
SCALLOPED   VEGETABLES 

CABBAGE  OR  ONION 

A.  Class  Experiment.    MINERAL  ASH  IN  VEGETABLES. 
Put  a  piece  of  vegetable  about  as  big  as  an  inch  cube 

into  an  evaporating  dish  and  heat  until  the  residue  is  quite 
white.  The  process  may  be  hastened  by  moistening  with 
a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  and  if  a  blast  lamp  is  available,  use  it. 
Note  the  amount  of  ash  obtained. 

B.  COOKING  STRONG-FLAVORED  VEGETABLES. 
Boil  pieces  of  cabbage  or  onion. 

1.  In  very  little  water  (a)  covered 

(6)  uncovered 

2.  In  much  water  (a)  covered 

(6)  uncovered 

Compare  the  odor  given  off  while  cooking,  and  the  flavor 
of  the  vegetable  at  the  end.  Which  is  the  best  method  of 
cooking  strong-flavored  vegetables  ?  Save  the  water  used, 
as  well  as  the  vegetable. 

C.  PREPARE  SCALLOPED  CABBAGE  OR  ONION. 

Place  the  vegetable  cooked  in  (B)  in  a  buttered  baking- 
dish,  mix  with  medium  white  sauce,  and  sprinkle  with 
buttered  crumbs. 

Buttered  crumbs  are  easily  prepared  by  melting  the 
butter  in  a  saucepan,  stirring  in  the  bread  crumbs  and 
seasoning  with  salt,  and  pepper  if  desired.  Allow  about 
half  a  teaspoon  of  butter  for  a  tablespoon  of  crumbs. 

D.  PREPARE  CREAM  SOUP. 

Use  the  water  in  which  the  vegetables  were  cooked. 
Make  your  own  recipe. 


VEGETABLES  147 


VEGETABLES 

In  buying  vegetables  it  is  wisest  to  buy  those  which  are 
in  season,  rather  than  imported  or  hot-house  vegetables. 
The  latter  are  seldom  equal  in  flavor  or  texture  and  are 
usually  much  more  costly.  It  is  easy  to  blunt  our  relish  for 
a  vegetable  by  eating  poor  specimens  out  of  season.  Even 
when  vegetables  are  in  season,  there  is  much  choice  to  be 
exercised  in  their  selection.  Some  vegetables,  when  kept, 
do  not  retain  their  sweet  flavor.  This  is  especially  true  of 
green  peas  and  corn,  in  only  less  measure  of  string  beans 
and  asparagus.  Such  vegetables  must  be  fresh,  and  fresh- 
ness is  told  chiefly  by  crispness.  Asparagus  can  be  judged 
partly  by  seeing  whether  the  stems  have  been  cut  recently. 
In  corn,  not  only  should  the  silk  be  brown,  but  the  ear 
filled  with  well-developed  kernels.  The  kernel,  when  cut, 
should  be  tender  and  juicy.  String  beans  should  have  a 
brittle  pod  with  tender  strings,  and  the  beans  should  be 
small.  Some  varieties  of  peas  are  large ;  unless  of  such  a 
variety,  young  peas  are  small.  Pods  should  be  crisp  and 
green  and,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  full.  Fresh  spinach, 
celery,  lettuce,  cucumber,  radishes,  summer  squash,  and 
tomatoes  are  not  difficult  to  select.  Lettuce  and  celery 
should  be  tender  as  well  as  fresh  and  crisp.  The  freshness 
of  young  carrots  and  beets  can  be  told  by  their  leaves. 
With  older  ones,  in  the  winter  market,  smaller  vegetables 
are  not  only  more  tender,  but,  if  bought  by  measure,  give 
more  for  the  money. 

If  wilted  vegetables  must  be  used,  they  should  be  soaked 
in  cool  water  to  freshen  them  as  much  as  possible.  The 
effect  is  much  the  same  as  with  wilted  flowers.  Vegetables 
do  not,  however,  keep  well  standing  in  water.  The  water 
becomes  full  of  bacteria,  just  as  does  the  water  in  which 
flowers  stand,  and,  if  the  vegetables  are  cut,  some  of  the 


148 


FOOD   STUDY 


U.S. Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
ACTrwe.Direetor 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


R«pared  by 

CXFLANGWORTHY 

E*>ert  «  Charge  of  Nutrition  hnatigdtioRS 


mnn     &a&     %*^ 

Protein  Fat  Carbohydrate*         Ash 

SHELLED  BEAN,   FRESH 

Fat-.0.6 
FYotein:9/ 


Value 


mTTTIl 

Water 


NAVY  BEAN,   DRY 


2.0 


Carbo 


FUEL    VALUE 


740  CALORIES  PCR   POUND  1600  CALORIES  PCR  POUND 

STRING  BEAN,  GREEN 


Water:  89. 


FUEL    VALUE 

D 

195    CALORIES   PER   POUND 

CORN,  GREEN 

EDIBLE  PORTION 


Water:  75 .4 


Carboh^drates-.ISJ 
,3h:0.7 


COMPOSITION  OF  LEGUMES  AND  CORN 


VEGETABLES  149 

soluble  constituents  are  soaked  out.  Dried  vegetables, 
too,  must  be  soaked,  but  only  for  a  limited  time,  to  restore 
the  water  which  has  been  lost  in  drying. 

Although  vegetables  differ  greatly  in  regard  to  their 
composition,  they  are  all  valuable  for  their  mineral  salts. 
But  unless  care  is  taken,  these  valuable  constituents,  as 
well  as  much  soluble  protein  and  sugar,  will  be  lost  in  the 
preparation.  For  this  reason  steaming  is  better  than 
boiling  unless  the  water  in  which  they  are  cooked  is  to  be 
used.  For  the  same  reason  vegetables  are  better  cooked 
whole  or  cut  in  as  large  pieces  as  possible.  Recent  experi- 
ments 1  have  shown,  for  example,  that  while  spinach  and 
cabbage  lose  very  little  when  steamed,  over  thirty  per 
cent  more  of  the  total  solids  are  lost  when  the  same  vege- 
tables are  boiled.  Baking  is  an  ideal  method  for  vegetables 
that  can  be  so  prepared. 

In  general,  vegetables  are  put  on  to  boil  in  hot  water. 
The  exception  should  be  made  with  peas  and  beans,  which 
are  less  tough  if  started  in  cold  water.  As  a  general  rule, 
vegetables  are  greatly  over-cooked,  losing  much  flavor  in 
this  way.  They  should  be  removed  from  the  water  as 
soon  as  they  are  sufficiently  tender.  This  is  especially 
true  of  mild-flavored  vegetables,  but  it  is  true,  too,  of 
cabbage,  which  becomes  slimy  and  quite  different  in 
texture  and  flavor  as  a  result  of  long  cooking. 

Vegetables  may  be  prepared  deliciously  in  a  fireless 
cooker.  With  strong-flavored  vegetables,  the  heat  is  not 
sufficient  to  develop  the  objectionable  strong  flavor. 

Winter  vegetables  to  be  stored  should  be  kept  cool,  dark, 
dry,  and  piled  up,  to  keep  out  as  much  air  as  possible. 
Squashes  are  an  exception  and  should  be  spread  out  in  a 
warm,  dry  place. 

1  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Deo.  1912,  "  Losses  in  Cooking 
Vegetables.'! 


150  FOOD   STUDY 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  256.     "The  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for 

the  Table." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  73,  pp.  23-27  :  "Cooking  Vegetables." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  342,  pp.  29-30 :  "Cooking  Beans  and  other 

Vegetables." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Office  of  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  No.  245.    "Courses  in  the  Use  and 
Preparation  of  Vegetable  Foods." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  strong,  and  of  sweet  or  mild-flavored  vegetables. 

2.  Are  vegetables  which  contain  little  starch  cheap  or  dear  food 
compared  with  the  amount  of  nutrients  they  contain  ? 

3.  How  is  their  use  justified  ? 

4.  Suggest  uses  for  the  water  in  which  vegetables  have  been  cooked. 

5.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  buy  vegetables,   fruit,   and  meat  by 
telephone  ? 

XXX 

GREEN   VEGETABLES 

SPINACH 
LETTUCE 

A.    Class  Experiments. 

THE  FRESHENING  OF  GREEN  VEGETABLES. 

1.  Soak  lettuce  in  ice  water  for  half  an  hour. 

2.  Soak  lettuce  in  ice  water  over  night. 

3.  Wash  lettuce  and  put  it  in  an  air-tight  can  or  jar  on 
ice  in  an  ice-box ;  allow  it  to  remain  an  hour  or  longer. 

4.  Wash  lettuce,  wrap  in  a  damp  cloth,  and  place  on  ice 
in  an  ice-box ;  allow  it  to  remain  an  hour  or  longer. 


GREEN  VEGETABLES  151 

5.  Wash  lettuce,  wrap  it  in  a  damp  cloth,  and  hang  in 
the  wind. 

6.  Pour  a  little  French  dressing  (see  below)  over  a  lettuce 
leaf,  and  let  it  stand  awhile. 

How  would  you  recommend  keeping  lettuce?  How 
freshen  it  quickly?  When  should  it  be  dressed? 

B.     COOKING  GREENS. 

Pick  over  and  wash  very  carefully  in  several  waters 
spinach  or  other  greens. 

1.  Cook  for  ten  minutes  in  a  saucepan  without  the  addi- 
tion of  more  water  than  remains  from  the  washing, 
tossing  frequently  to  prevent  burning.     Chop.     Con- 
tinue simmering  until  tender. 

2.  Cook  uncovered  in  a  large  amount  of  salted  water 
until  tender. 

Compare  the  flavor  and  color  obtained  by  the  different 
methods  of  cooking. 

Season  part  of  the  spinach  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter, 
and  serve  with  slices  of  hard-cooked  eggs. 

Pack  the  rest  into  a  mold  to  cool.  Serve  as  salad  with 
one  of  the  following  dressings. 

FRENCH  DRESSING. 

Use  one-third  to  one-half  as  much  vinegar  or  lemon  juice 
as  oil,  and  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoon  of  salt  for  each  table- 
spoon of  oil.  Add  a  little  pepper  or  paprika.  Beat  with  a 
spoon  till  well  blended. 

SOUR  CREAM  DRESSING. 

Beat  half  a  teaspoon  of  powdered  sugar  into  a  tablespoon 
of  thick,  sour  cream,  and  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and 
lemon  juice  or  vinegar  to  taste. 


152  FOOD   STUDY 

THE  AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  NECESSARY 

The  nutrients  in  food  are  summed  up  into  five  groups 
called  food  principles  or  foodstuffs :  water,  mineral  matter, 
proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fats. 

Water  is  found  in  nearly  all  foods.  Its  specific  uses  in 
the  body  have  already  been  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of 
water. 

Mineral  matter,  too,  has  been  discussed,  so  that  all  that 
need  be  said  here  is  to  point  out  the  fact  that  it  is  found 
generally  in  all  foods.  The  kinds,  as  well  as  the  amounts, 
differ  greatly,  and  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  try  to  supply 
definite  amounts  of  all  the  different  kinds.  In  general, 
however,  those  foods  which  contain  large  amounts  of 
mineral  matter  should  be  eaten  in  abundant  quantity. 
Meat,  fats,  and  sugar,  show  so  little  ash  that  if  too  much  of 
them  is  eaten  the  diet  may  easily  fail  to  furnish  a  sufficient 
supply  of  mineral  substances.  The  value  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  on  account  of  their  salts  has  already  been 
emphasized. 

~  The  proteins  get  their  name  from  a  word  which  means 
" first ' '  or  "  chief."  They  received  this  name  because  they 
are  the  only  foodstuffs  which  contain  nitrogen  and  so  are 
essential  for  building  and  repairing  body  tissue,  for  this 
also  contains  nitrogen.  Besides  nitrogen,  they  contain 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon,  as  well  as  other  elements, 
such  as  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  in  smaller  quantities. 
Meats,  eggs  and  milk  provide  us  with  large  amounts  of 
animal  protein.  Protein  is  also  found  in  our  vegetable 
foods, — most  of  the  nuts,  some  of  the  grains,  and  a  few 
vegetables  containing  appreciable  amounts. 

The  carbohydrate  group  receives  its  name  because  all 
the  compounds  in  this  class  are  composed  of  carbon,  and 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  which  are  usually  in  the  same  pro- 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  NECESSARY         153 

portion  as  in  water.  Starch,  cellulose,  and  sugar,  as  well 
as  pectin  and  dextrine,  are  all  members  of  this  group. 

The  fats  contain  only  the  three  elements  which  are  found 
in  the  carbohydrates,  but  they  are  present  in  quite  differ- 
ent proportions.  Oils  are  merely  fats  which  are  liquid 
at  ordinary  temperatures  instead  of  solid. 

As  has  already  been  said,  the  last  three  classes  of  foods 
act  as  fuels  in  the  body,  supplying  it  with  energy.  The 
energy  which  is  thus  supplied  is  the  sole  source  of  the 
energy  of  the  body.  It  is  used  not  only  for  maintaining 
the  temperature,  but  for  all  muscular  movement  as  well. 
It  is,  then,  a  matter  of  great  moment,  not  only  that  the 
body  should  be  supplied  with  enough  protein  for  building 
material,  but  that  it  should  also  be  supplied  with  enough 
energy.  At  first  thought  it  might  seem  as  if  proteins 
could  be  used  entirely  for  both  these  purposes  and  fats  and 
carbohydrates  omitted  from  the  diet,  but  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  results  would  be  bad,  for  a 
number  of  causes,  one  of  which  is  that  this  would  furnish 
the  body  with  a  great  excess  of  nitrogen. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  enough  energy  must  be  furnished, 
but  what  is  "enough"  and  how  is  the  amount  to  be  deter- 
mined? This  can  be  done  by  measuring  the  energy 
needed  by  the  body,  and  the  amount  of  energy  supplied 
by  various  foodstuffs. 

While  energy  may  be  measured  in  a  variety  of  ways,  for 
example,  as  work,  measured  in  foot-pounds,  or  as  light, 
measured  in  candle  power,  the  energy  value  of  foods  is 
measured  as  heat  in  calories.  The  unit  of  measurement, 
the  calorie,  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  kilogram  (about  a  quart)  of  water  one 
degree  Centigrade,  or  it  may  be  expressed  as  about  the 
amount  of  heat  that  would  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
pound  of  water  four  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


154  FOOD  STUDY 

To  determine  the  energy  value  of  a  foodstuff  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  burn  a  given  amount  of  it  in  such  a  way 
that  all  the  heat  given  off  shall  be  taken  up  by  water. 
Then,  knowing  the  amount  of  water  and  the  rise  in  tem- 
perature, the  number  of  calories  given  off  can  be  calculated. 
Such  an  apparatus  is  called  a  calorimeter,  from  the  word 
meter,  or  measure,  and  color,  a  Latin  word  meaning  heat. 
A  hollow  metal  cylinder,  containing  the  material  to  be 
burned  and  a  supply  of  oxygen,  is  immersed  in  an  insulated 
tank  containing  a  measured  amount  of  water.  Combus- 
tion is  started  by  sending  an  electric  spark  through  the 
foodstuff.  The  heat  given  off  passes  through  the  metal 
cylinder  into  the  water.  The  rise  in  temperature  is  very 
accurately  determined  by  means  of  thermometers,  and 
corrections  are  made  for  any  unavoidable  escape  of 
heat. 

All  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  which  are  digested  and 
burned  in  the  body  give  off,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  same 
amounts  of  energy  under  these  circumstances  that  they  do 
in  the  calorimeter.  Proteins,  however,  are  not  completely 
oxidized  in  the  body,  and  so  furnish  it  with  a  somewhat 
smaller  amount  of  heat  than  the  calorimeter  would  indicate. 
Allowing  for  losses  in  digestion,  it  has  been  determined 
that  every  ounce  of  either  protein  or  carbohydrate  eaten 
supplies  the  body  with  113  calories  of  heat;  fats  have 
greater  fuel  value  and  give  255  calories  for  every  ounce. 

The  total  amount  of  energy  which  must  be  supplied  per 
person  per  day  is,  obviously,  affected  by  the  size  of  the 
person  whose  temperature  must  be  maintained,  as  well  as 
by  the  amount  of  energy  used  up  in  work.  Atwater, 
for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  deter- 
mined the  following  amounts  as  necessary  for  the  man  or 
woman  of  average  size.  The  woman  is  allowed  less  be- 
cause she  averages  less  in  weight. 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  NECESSARY         155 

Man  with  hard  muscular  work        4150  calories 

Man  with  moderately  active  work 3400  calories 

Man  at  sedentary  or  the  woman  with  moderately  ac- 
tive work 2700  calories 

Man  without  muscular  exercise  or  the  woman  at  light 

to  moderate  work       2450  calories 

How  much  protein  is  necessary  daily  is  still  a  matter  of 
controversy,  but  it  is  well  established  that  the  old  notion 
that  much  meat  or  protein  is  necessary  for  strength  is  false. 
Some  put  the  figure  higher  than  others,  but  300  to  400 
calories  a  day  from  protein  is  probably  a  safe  amount  for 
the  average  person. 

In  stating  the  composition  of  food,  sometimes  the  per- 
centages of  the  various  ingredients  are  given.  Another 
way  of  expressing  it  is  to  state  the  number  of  calories 
of  heat  given  by  the  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  proteins  in 
an  amount  of  food  which  furnishes  a  total  of  one  hundred 
calories  of  energy.  This  amount  is  known  as  the  "  stand- 
ard portion."  The  second  method  is  perhaps  less  con- 
fusing, especially  when  comparisons  between  foods  are  to 
be  made. 

For  example,  suppose  a  boiled  potato  and  white  flour 
are  to  be  compared.  The  percentage  composition  of  the 
two  is  as  follows : 


WATEB 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Boiled  potato      .     . 
Wheat  flour    

75.5% 
128% 

2.5% 
10.8% 

•1% 
1.1% 

20.9% 

74.8% 

With  this  great  difference  in  the  percentage  of  water  pres- 
ent, it  is  evident  that  the  percentages  of  the  other  ingredi- 
ents cannot  be  compared  directly. 


156 


FOOD    STUDY 


Compare  this  with  the  number  of  calories  furnished  by 
the  ingredients  in  the  hundred-calorie  portions. 


WEIGHT  OP 

CALORIES  FROM 

100-CALORiE  PORTION 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 

Boiled  potato  .     . 

3|  OZ. 

11 

1 

88 

Wheat  flour     .     . 

loz. 

12 

3 

85 

It  is  at  once  evident  that  they  are  not  so  unlike  in  their 
nutritive  elements,  but  that  about  four  times  as  much 
weight  of  potato  must  be  had  to  provide  the  same  amount 
of  energy. 

If  potatoes  cost  five  cents  for  three  pounds  (If  ^  per 
pound)  and  flour  is  five  cents  a  pound,  it  is  easy  to  cal- 
culate that  four  pounds  of  potatoes  would  cost  six  and 
two-thirds  cents,  while  a  pound  of  white  flour  would  fur- 
nish the  same  amount  of  fuel  value  for  five  cents. 

Compare  milk  with  flour. 


WATEB 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Flour  .     .     .    »    . 

12.8% 

10.8% 

1.1% 

74.8% 

Milk  

87.0% 

3.3% 

4.0% 

5.0% 

The  difference  in  the  percentage  of  water  present  in  the 
two  makes  it  hard  to  decide  which  really  furnishes  the 
more  protein,  or  fat,  or  carbohydrate. 


WEIGHT  OF 
IOO-CALORIE  PORTION 

CALORIES  FROM 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 

Flour      .... 
Milk  

1  OZ. 

5+oz. 

12 
19 

3 
52 

85 
29 

THE  AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  NECESSARY         157 

It  may  be  seen  at  once,  by  the  second  table,  that  over  five 
times  as  much  milk  is  necessary  to  equal  the  total  calories 
in  flour,  but  that  the  milk  will  furnish  almost  twice  as 
many  calories  from  protein.  If  milk  costs  four  cents  a 
pint  (about  a  pound),  it  is  evidently  much  more  expen- 
sive both  as  a  source  of  energy  and  as  a  source  of  protein. 

Such  comparisons  are  of  great  interest,  for  food  value 
and  cost,  curiously,  have  no  connection  with  each  other. 
Some  of  the  government  pamphlets  show  by  graphs  the 
amount  of  fuel  value  which  can  be  purchased  in  different 
foods  for  a  given  amount  of  money,  but  the  price  of  foods 
changes  so  rapidly  that  these  quickly  become  antiquated. 

In  addition  to  the  recognized  food  principles,  there 
seems  to  be  another  class  of  substances  present  in  foods, 
which  are  known  as  vitamines.  These  are  present  in 
natural  foodstuffs  in  only  small  amounts,  but  they  seem 
necessary,  some  for  nutrition  and  others  for  growth. 
Fruits,  vegetables,  and  milk  are  our  best  sources  for  these 
substances,  so  far  as  is  known  at  present.  The  whole 
subject  of  vitamines  is  under  investigation,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  before  long  we  shall  be  able  to  speak  more 
definitely  concerning  them.  However,  they  furnish  an 
excellent  additional  reason  for  the  inclusion  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  in  our  diet. 

In  all  these  discussions,  it  should  be  remembered,  no 
account  has  been  taken  of  mineral  matter.  Sherman  says 
that  of  the  mineral  elements,  only  calcium,  iron,  and  phos- 
phorus need  to  be  considered,  if  the  diet  be  sufficient  and 
balanced.  (See  the  Appendix.) 

Since  many  of  our  servings  of  food  are  about  a  hun- 
dred-calorie portion  or  bear  a  simple  relation  to  it, 
it  is  convenient  to  use  such  a  table  in  estimating  the 
fuel  value  of  a  meal.  A  table  of  this  kind  will  be  found 
in  the  Appendix. 


158  FOOD   STUDY 


REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Office  of  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  No.  28. 
"The  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  Swiss  chard.     Why  is  it  not  commonly  found  in  the 
market? 

2.  List  leaves  which  may  be  substituted  for  spinach  as  "greens." 

3.  Can  the  outer  leaves  of  lettuce,  not  desirable  for  salad,  be  used  in 
this  way  ? 

4.  If  you  had  peas  that  you  were  not  going  to  use  for  a  couple  of 
days,  would  they  keep  better  cooked  or  raw  ?    How  about  potatoes  ? 

5.  Why  must  all  green  vegetables  be  washed  before  using,  even 
though  they  look  clean  ? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  vegetables  classified  as  to  composition. 

7.  What  vegetables  and  fruits  contain  more  water  than  milk  does  ? 


XXXI 
SWEET-FLAVORED   VEGETABLES 

SQUASH 

BUTTERED  BEETS 
A.    SQUASH. 

Prepare  squash,  boiled,  steamed,  and  baked.  Com- 
pare the  time  of  cooking,  the  texture,  and  the  flavor. 

BOILED  SQUASH. 

Cut  the  squash  in  pieces,  pare,  and  remove  seeds  and 
strings.  Cook  in  boiling,  salted  water,  until  soft.  Drain, 
mash,  and  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter. 

STEAMED  SQUASH. 

Follow  directions  under  boiled  squash,  except  that, 
instead  of  boiling  the  squash,  you  should  cook  it  in  a 
strainer  over  boiling  water. 


SQUASH  159 

BAKED  SQUASH. 

Prepare  squash  by  cutting  in  squares  and  removing 
seeds  and  strings,  but  do  not  pare.     Bake  until  soft. 

B.  1.  Wash  a  beet  and  cut  the  top  off  close.     Cook  in 

hot  water  until  tender. 

2.  Wash  a  beet  as  before,  but  take  pains  not  to 
break  the  skin,  retain  the  root  and  at  least  an 
inch  of  the  top.  Cook  as  before.  Compare 
results.  When  should  beets  be  peeled,  before  or 
after  cooking  ?  To  serve,  peel,  and  cut  beets  in 
half-inch  slices  and  reheat  in  a  little  butter; 
season  with  salt,  and  pepper  if  desired. 

C.  Class  Experiment.    SUGAR  TEST. 

Very  dilute  copper  sulphate  and  potassium  hydroxide 
solutions  are  used  in  testing1  /or  sugar. 

1.  Boil  together  a  little  ot  the  two  solutions,  and  note 
the  color  obtained  when  no  sugar  is  present. 

2.  To  a  few  drops  of  glucose,  add  a  little  of  the  two 
solutions   and   boil.     (Corn   syrup   may   be   used.) 
What  is  the  color  when  sugar  is  present? 

3.  See  if  you  can  obtain  this  color  by  using  granulated 
sugar  in  place  of  the  glucose. 

4.  Boil  a  little  granulated  sugar  with  some  acid  in  the 
water.     (Cream  of  tartar  or  vinegar  may  be  used.) 
Now  try  the  sugar  test,  but  before  boiling,  be  sure  to 
add  enough  of  the  hydroxide  to  color  the  solution 
blue  and  not  green. 

5.  Boil  small  pieces  of  vegetables  or  fruit,  such  as  beet, 
onion,  sweet  potato,  grape,  apple,  prune,  or  date,  with 
water,  and  then  test  the  water  for  sugar.     If  the  test 
is  not  obtained  at  once,  try  boiling  first  with  acid, 
and  then  making  the  test. 


160  FOOD  STUDY 

CANE  AND  BEET  SUGAR 

Sucrose  is  the  chemical  name  of  the  sugar  used  as  lump, 
granulated,  or  powdered  sugar.  It  occurs  in  large  amounts 
in  sugar  cane  and  in  the  sugar  palm,  as  well  as  in  sugar 
beets.  In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  sugar  cane,  the 
cane  is  crushed  and  the  juice  squeezed  out  by  passing 
between  a  series  of  rollers  while  the  pulp  is  sprayed  with 
water.  This  gives  what  is  called  raw  juice.  The  separa- 
tion and  refining  of  the  sugar  is  sometimes  carried  out  by 
one  process,  sometimes  by  another.  Lime  is  often  used 
to  neutralize  the  acidity  of  the  juice,  impurities  are  filtered 
off  or  allowed  to  settle  out,  and  the  residue  is  boiled  re- 
peatedly, sugar  crystallizing  out  after  each  boiling.  In 
modern  factories,  this  last  process  is  accomplished  in 
vacuum  pans.  The  raw  or  brown  sugar  which  is  obtained 
requires  still  further  purification.  It  is  washed  with  sugar 
syrup,  dissolved  in  hot  water,  clarified,  and  filtered  first 
through  cotton  bags,  then  through  bone-black  filters,  to 
remove  as  much  of  the  color  as  possible,  and  again  crys- 
tallized in  vacuum  pans.  During  the  last  process,  the 
sugar  is  often  "blued"  to  make  it  appear  whiter.  When 
we  study  in  detail  all  the  processes  which  sugar  goes 
through,  and  all  the  machinery  which  is  used  in  its  manu- 
facture, it  seems  marvelous  that  sugar  can  be  sold  for  a 
few  cents  a  pound. 

Sugar  from  beets  is  manufactured  by  similar  processes, 
but  the  juice  is  soaked  out  instead  of  being  crushed  out  of 
the  beet.  As  found  on  the  market,  the  crystals  of  sugar 
from  the  one  source  are  usually  coarser  than  from  the 
other,  but  the  two  are  equally  valuable.  The  United 
States  produces  sugar  in  large  quantities,  but  more  from 
cane  than  from  beets.  Europe,  on  the  other  hand,  makes 
beet  sugar. 


CANE  AND  BEET  SUGAR  161 

Refined  sugar  could  also  be  manufactured  from  the  sap 
of  the  sugar  maple,  although  not  very  profitably,  for  the 
amount  of  sugar  present  is  small ;  but  because  the  taste  of 
the  raw  sugar  is  agreeable,  maple  sugar,  as  such,  is  put 
upon  the  market  and  obtains  a  good  price. 

The  amount  of  sugar  used  yearly  is  large.  In  this 
country,  about  eighty-five  pounds  per  person  is  con- 
sumed, but  of  course  some  of  this  is  used  in  industrial 
processes.  It  is  only  recently  that  sugar  has  been  used 
freely,  and  it  is  still  an  open  question  whether  such  exten- 
sive use  is  desirable.  Sugar  not  only  lacks  mineral  salts, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  but  it  shows  some  ten- 
dency to  cause  indigestion.  In  too  great  concentration, 
it  abstracts  water  from  the  the  mucous  membrane.  Sher- 
man suggests  that  this  effect  is  easily  illustrated  by  hold- 
ing a  piece  of  hard  candy  in  one  side  of  the  mouth  for  some 
time,  without  moving  it.  Then,  too,  sugar  readily  fer- 
ments in  the  stomach,  and  forms  irritating  acids.  On  the 
other  hand,  sugar  is  quickly  digested  and  furnishes  an 
immediate  source  of  energy. 

In  the  household  use  of  sugar,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  best  time  to  eat  sugar  or  candy  is  after  meals.  If 
taken  with  staple  food,  it  often  causes  more  to  be  eaten 
than  is  needed,  or  by  cloying  the  appetite,  produces  the 
opposite  effect.  Taken  between  meals,  it  may  upset  the 
normal  appetite.  It  is  less  likely  to  irritate  the  stomach, 
if  taken  with  other  food.  Liberal  amounts  of  water  also 
tend  to  lessen  the  irritation. 

Sugar  is  a  hearty  food  and  can  undoubtedly  be  used  in 
larger  quantities  by  very  active  people,  hard  laborers, 
and  children,  than  by  sedentary  people,  if  it  does  not 
produce  digestive  disturbances.  It  is  often  carried  by 
soldiers  or  mountain  climbers  because  it  is  a  concentrated 
food. 


162  FOOD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  93.  "Sugar  as 
Food"  or  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  535.  "Sugar  and  Its  Value 
as  Food." 

Journal  of  Home  Economics.  Vol.  VII,  p.  544.  "The  Consump- 
tion of  Sugar." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  common  vegetables,  giving  season,  amount  needed 
for  a  family  of  four,  and  the  probable  cost  of  that  amount  when  in 
season.     (The  work  on  this  table  may  well  be  divided  between  the 
different  members  of  the  class.) 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  cheaper  vegetables,  and  give  as  many  ways 
of  preparing  each  as  you  can  find.     Consult  cook  books. 


XXXII 
CANDIES 

A.    Class  Experiment. 

THE  STAGES  IN  SUGAR  COOKERY. 

Boil  \  c.  sugar  in  \  c.  water.  Test  by  dropping  product 
into  cold  water  at  the  following  stages.  Feel  the  ball  in 
2,  3,  4,  and  5.  Note  color  in  last. 

1.  233         degrees  Fahrenheit  —  "Hair"  or  "Thread"  stage. 

2.  236-242  degrees  Fahrenheit  —  Soft  ball  stage. 

3.  254          degrees  Fahrenheit  —  Hard  stage. 

4.  260-275  degrees  Fahrenheit  —  Crack  stage. 

5.  290-350  degrees  Fahrenheit  —  Caramel  stage. 

6.  290         degrees  Fahrenheit  —  Hard  crack  stage. 

Syrup  at  the  thread  stage  is  used  in  making  frosting. 

Prepare  peanut  brittle  by  pouring  the  syrup  at  caramel 
stage  over  chopped  nuts  spread  on  a  buttered  pan.  Mark 
in  squares  as  it  cools. 


CARBOHYDRATES  163 

B.  Class  Experiment.     CRYSTALLIZATION  OF  SUGARS. 

Dissolve  f  c.  sugar  in  J  c.  water.     Divide  into  3  portions. 

1.  Boil  first  portion  to  hard  crack  stage,  and  set  aside 
to  cool. 

2.  To  the  second  portion  add  J  tsp.  vinegar  or  lemon 
juice  or  a  pinch  of  cream  of  tartar.     Boil  to  hard 
crack  stage  and  set  aside  to  cool. 

3.  To  the  third  portion  add  one-fourth  the  volume  of 
glucose.     Boil  to  hard  crack  stage  and  set  aside  to 
cool. 

Why  is  acid  or  glucose  added  in  making  many  candies  ? 

C.  CANDIES. 

Make  such  candies  as  time  and  circumstances  warrant. 
Cook  to : 

1.  Soft  ball  stage  (238°)  Panochi,   Fudge  (Chocolate 
cream  candy),  Cocoanut  Cream  Candy,  Fondant. 

2.  Hard  ball  stage  (254°)  Chocolate  Caramels,  Planta- 
tion Drops,  Butter  Cups. 

3.  Crack    stage    (270°)    Molasses    Candy,  Ice  Cream 
Candy,    Vinegar    Candy,    Popcorn    Balls,    Butter- 
scotch. 

4.  Hard  crack  stage  (290°)  Glace-Fruit,  and  Nuts. 
For  recipes  see  cook-books. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

Carbohydrates  are  sugars,  and  substances  like  cellulose, 
starch  and  pectin  which  may  be  changed  into  sugars 
either  by  boiling  with  acids  or  by  ferment  action. 

The  carbohydrates  are  divided  into  three  groups  ac- 
cording to  their  complexity,  and  are  called  mono-,  di-, 
and  poly-  saccharides.  The  chief  members  of  the  groups 
are  as  follows : 


164 


FOOD   STUDY 


USOepor-tment  of  Agriculture  Prepared  by 

Officaof  Experinent  Stations  OELANGWORTHY 

A-C.Tr u««  Director  Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  bwwtgations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

mUD       E88&3       try^sa       is\\\\\i       muni 

Pot          Carbohydrates         Aah 


Protein 


Water 


1860CAUIRIC5 
PER  POUND 


STICK  CANDY 

Carjiphydrate3;96.5 


CALDHIES 

POUND 


:3.0 


FUEL 


A3h:0.5 


MAPLE  SUGAR 

t-Water;16.3 


1785  CALOW! 


LOWES 
PCR   POUNU 


HONEY 


FVotein.0.4 
Cahbo-  Carbo- 


1520  CALORIES  PEB 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS  CONTAINING  SUGAR 


CARBOHYDRATES 


165 


MONOSACCHARIDES 

DlSACCHARIDES 

POLYSACCHARIDES 

Glucose  or  dextrose 
Fructose  or  levulose 
Galactose 

Sucrose  or  "  sugar  " 
Milk  sugar  or  lactose 
Malt  sugar  or  maltose 

Starch 
Dextrine 
Cellulose 
Glycogen 
Pectin 

All  the  members  of  the  first  and  second  group  are  sugars, 
and  all  are  soluble  in  water  and  more  or  less  sweet  in  taste. 
The  two  groups  are  sometimes  called  single  and  double 
sugars.  A  plant  probably  manufactures  a  single  sugar 
out  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  and  then  changes  the 
single  sugar  into  either  double  sugar  or  polysaccharides. 
When  polysaccharides  or  disaccharides  are  digested,  or 
boiled  with  water  and  acid,  the  plant-manufacturing 
process  is  reversed  and  the  substances  are  finally  broken 
down  into  single  sugars.  To  prove  this,  chew  a  bit  of 
cracker,  being  careful  not  to  swallow  it  before  the  sweet 
taste  of  the  sugar  is  evident.  The  breaking  down  pro- 
cess also  goes  on  in  the  plant  when  stored  starch  or  sugar 
is  used  for  further  growth,  as,  for  example,  in  a  potato 
when  it  sprouts. 

Glucose  and  fructose  occur  in  many  fruits  and  vegetables 
and  are  present  in  large  quantities  in  honey.  Glucose  is 
used  so  extensively  for  food  that  it  is  also  manufactured 
from  cornstarch  by  boiling  the  starch  with  acid.  The  chief 
points  to  be  remembered  about  these  two  sugars  are  that 
they  do  not  need  to  undergo  any  process  of  digestion 
before  being  absorbed,  that  they  do  not  crystallize  so 
readily  as  cane  sugar,  and  that  they  give  the  sugar  test. 
Galactose  is  a  digestive  product  of  milk  sugar  and  is  not 
found  as  such  in  foods. 

Of  the  disaccharides,  sucrose  and  lactose  are  the  more 


166  FOOD   STUDY 

important  in  OUT  foods.  Lactose  is  found  in  milk.  It 
ferments  in  the  stomach  less  readily  than  sucrose  and  so  is 
probably  much  better  for  babies.  Accordingly,  modified 
milk  and  other  baby  foods  are  often  prepared  by  the  addi- 
tion of  lactose.  It  is  also  used  as  a  basis  for  sugar  pills. 
It  is  manufactured  commercially  by  separating  it  from  milk. 
When  sucrose  is  boiled  with  an  acid  in  the  presence  of  water 
it  changes  into  equal  parts  of  glucose  and  fructose.  Glu- 
cose is  far  less  sweet  than  sucrose,  but  fructose  is  much 
sweeter.  Consequently  the  mixture,  "invert"  sugar  as  it 
is  called,  is  not  very  different  in  sweetness  from  the  original 
sucrose,  but  the  latter  is  probably  a  little  sweeter.  Some 
recipes  call  for  the  addition  of  sugar  to  acid  fruits  after 
boiling,  so  that  this  change  will  not  take  place  as  a  result 
of  the  cooking.  The  saving  is  probably  so  small  as  not  to 
be  appreciable.  On  the  other  hand,  this  change  is  delib- 
erately sought  after  in  making  candies  like  fondant  and 
fudge  which  must  be  smooth  and  velvety,  not  granular, 
and  in  candies  like  butter-scotch  which  must  not  "sugar." 

The  single  sugars  crystallize  with  much  more  difficulty 
than  sucrose,  and  the  presence  of  even  small  amounts  of 
them  makes  the  candy  less  liable  to  "grain"  or  "sugar." 
Sometimes,  instead  of  bringing  about  the  change  by  boil- 
ing with  acid,  a  little  glucose  syrup  is  added  to  produce  the 
same  result. 

During  digestion  all  the  carbohydrates  are  broken  down 
into  single  sugars  and  are  then  absorbed  and  carried  to  the 
liver.  Here  and  in  the  muscles  any  sugar  in  excess  of  that 
needed  in  the  blood  is  stored  as  glycogen,  or  animal  starch. 
At  need,  the  process  is  reversed,  the  stored  glycogen  is 
again  broken  down  into  sugar  to  keep  the  supply  of  it 
constant  in  the  blood. 

Saccharin  is  a  chemical  substance  with  a  sweet  taste 
and  is  entirely  unlike  the  carbohydrates.  It  has  no 


CARBOHYDRATES  167 

food  value,  and  as,  in  too  large  amounts,  it  interferes  with 
digestion,  its  use  in  food  sold  in  interstate  commerce  has 
been  forbidden  by  the  United  States  government. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  93,  "Sugar 
as  Food ",  or  Fanners'  Bulletin  No.  535,  "Sugar  and  its 
Value  as  Food." 

Commercial  Geographies  and  Atlases. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  sugar  and  starch  in  appearance,  in  taste,  in  their 
behavior  in  cold  and  hot  water,  and  in  their  tendency  to  crystallize. 

2.  Compare  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  cornstarch,  of  flour,  of  sugar. 

3.  What  other  reasons  besides  the  economic  one  can  you  give 
why  it  would  be  unwise  to  omit  all  starch  from  our  diet  and  replace 
it  with  sugar  ? 

4.  What  are  brown  sugar,  molasses,  powdered  sugar,  lump  sugar  ? 

5.  Why  can  candy  with  brown  sugar,  molasses,  or  glucose,  be 
easily  made  with  the  addition  of  acids  ? 

6.  Grind  some  granulated  sugar  in  a  mortar  and  taste  it.     If 
powdered  sugar  tastes  less  sweet  than  granulated,  is  this  a  proof 
that  it  is  adulterated  ? 

7.  If  sugar  were  adulterated  with  either  sand  or  starch,  how 
would  these  manifest  themselves  ? 

8.  What  different  kinds  of  "lump"  sugar  are  there  and  what  is 
the  difference  between  them  ? 

9.  Which  costs  most  by  the  pound,  granulated  or  lump  sugar? 
Why  do  many  people  consider  it  less  expensive  to  serve  lump  sugar 
on  the  table? 

10.  Where  is  sugar  produced?    Do  we  export  or  import  sugar? 
Do  we  use  more  cane  or  beet  sugar  ? 

11.  How  is  glucose  manufactured?    Is  it  healthful?    Why  has 
there  been  a  prejudice  against  it? 


168  FOOD  STUDY 

XXXIII 
MEAT   CAKES   WITH   CREAMED   TURNIPS 

A.  Class  Experiment.    TESTS  WITH  MEAT. 

Soak  some  ground  meat  for  a  few  moments  in  a  little  cold 
water.     Pour  off  the  liquid  and  divide  it  into  two  parts. 

1.  Test  one  part  by  boiling  it  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid,  and  then  cooling  it  and  adding  ammonia.     Test, 
in  the  same  way,  a  bit  of  the  meat  fiber  from  which 
the  juice  has  been  soaked  out.     Recall  and  compare 
with  the  experiment  on  egg  white. 

2.  Heat  the  other  portion  to  simmering  and  observe. 
Then  boil  it.     Compare  with  the  experiment  on  egg 
white. 

B.  Class  Experiment.     THE  STRUCTURE  OF  MEAT. 

1.  Scrape  a  small  piece  of  raw  beef  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  fiber  with  a  dull  knife,  and  notice  the  structure. 
Can  you  see  any  fat  among  the  fibers  ? 

2.  Draw  a  muscle  fiber  as  it  appears  under  the  micro- 
scope. 

C.  PREPARE  BROILED  MEAT  CAKES. 

1.  Grind  the  beef,  season  with  salt,  and  pepper  if  desired, 
and  shape  lightly  into  small  flat  cakes.  Grease 
a  frying  pan  lightly  (a  piece  of  the  meat  fat  may  be 
rubbed  over  the  hot  pan),  and  broil  the  cakes.  Serve 
with  creamed  turnips. 

MEAT 
STRUCTURE  AND  COMPOSITION 

Meat  is  made  up  of  fibers  which  are  embedded  in  and 
held  together  by  connective  tissue.    The  connective  tissue 


MEAT 


169 


US.D«partment  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.C.True:  Director 


R-epored  by 

CJn-ANGWORTOY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  hvestigcltia 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


§Hgi        EiPl       {^3        ITTTTTT1 

Protarx  Fat          Carbohydrate*         Ash  Water 

LAMB  CHOP 


u«l  Value 


EOBLE  PORTION 

Water:  53.1 


PORK  CHOP 

EOBLE  PORTK3N 


SMOKED  HAM 

EOBLE  PORTION 

Waten40.3 


FUEL 

VALUE 


COMPOSITION  OF  MEAT 


170  FOOD   STUDY 

is  composed  of  two  proteins,  collagen  and  elastin.  The 
collagen,  when  boiled  with  water,  forms  gelatine.  The 
fibers  are  hollow  with  walls  composed  of  the  protein  sub- 
stance called  elastin.  This  is  like  collagen  in  some  of  its 
properties,  but  it  will  not  dissolve  on  boiling  with  water. 
The  content  of  the  fibers  is  called  muscle  juice.  It  is 
composed  of  water  in  which  are  proteins,  coloring  matter, 
salts,  and  extractives.  Besides  this,  there  is  fat  deposited 
in  varying  amounts,  mainly  in  the  connective  tissue.  In 
beef,  the  fat  is  usually  in  sufficiently  thick  layers  to  be  seen 
readily ;  in  pork,  the  fat  surrounds  the  fibers  in  such  small 
particles  as  not  to  be  visible,  although  present  in  a  generous 
amount.  The  proteins  of  the  muscle  juice  are  mainly 
myosin  and  albumin,  and  both  coagulate  with  heat.  The 
extractives,  so  named  because  they  can  be  extracted  from 
the  meat  by  boiling  it  in  water,  are  of  value  because  they 
give  the  meat  its  flavor.  Although  they  contain  nitrogen, 
they  have  practically  no  food  value,  since  they  cannot 
build  tissue  nor  furnish  heat  to  the  body.  They  are 
stimulants,  however,  and  cause  a  flow  of  digestive  juices 
in  the  stomach,  which  aids  in  the  digestion  of  food.  Lean 
meat  shows  about  the  following  composition: 

EDIBLE  MEAT 

Water 75.0%  to  77.0% 

Mineral  matter  .     .     .      0.8%  to  1.8% 

Fat 0.5%  to  3.0% 

Muscle  fibre  ....  13.0  %  to  18.0  % 
Connective  tissue    .     .      2.0  %  to  5.0  % 
Extractives     ....      0.5% 

Shortly  after  an  animal  is  slaughtered  a  condition  known 
as  rigor  mortis  sets  in,  during  which  the  muscles  are  very 
stiff.  Meat  must  be  eaten  either  before  this  begins,  or 
after  the  meat  has  hung  for  a  while.  In  hanging,  acids 


MEAT  171 

develop  which  perhaps  aid  in  softening  the  meat  again, 
and  certainly  add  to  its  flavor. 

The  cuts  of  meat  which  are  tender  usually  command 
the  highest  price.  They  come  from  the  parts  of  the  animal 
which  are  least  toughened  by  exercise,  but  there  is  con- 
siderable difference  in  tenderness  in  the  "better  cuts," 
breed,  age,  size,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  animal  has 
been  fattened,  all  affecting  the  result.  The  length  of  the 
fibers  seems  to  be  another  factor  in  the  question  of  tough- 
ness. Loin  steaks  and  rib  roasts  are  good  examples  of 
choice  cuts.  It  is  interesting  to  know,  however,  that  many 
of  the  cheaper  cuts  contain  more  extractives  and  less  water, 
so  that  they  are  both  better  flavored  and  more  nutritious. 
Waste,  too,  must  be  taken  into  account.  Instructive  data 
on  this  subject  can  be  obtained  in  Bulletin  158,  of  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Experience  is  needful  before  one  can  recognize  good 
meats  in  the  market.  This  can  best  be  acquired  by  getting 
a  butcher  to  show  different  grades  of  meat,  and  to  explain 
why  one  is  better  than  another.  Here  are  some  of  the 
chief  points  to  be  noted. 

BEEF 

The  meat  should  be  bright  red  after  standing,  but  it 
will  be  purplish  red  if  recently  cut.  It  should  be  fine- 
grained, firm,  and  the  lean  well-mottled  with  fat.  Coarse, 
flabby,  dark  beef  is  poor  meat ;  if  it  lacks  fat,  it  is  underfed 
or  old. 

VEAL 

Young  veal  is  generally  excluded  from  market;  that 
from  an  animal  about  two  months  old  is  considered  best. 
The  meat  is  much  paler  than  beef,  and  shows  no  mottling 
of  the  lean  with  fat.  It  should  be  pinkish  and  fine-grained. 


172 


FOOD  STUDY 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Shoulder. 

4.  Fore  shank. 

5.  Breast. 


6.  Ribs. 

7.  Loin. 

8.  Flank. 

9.  Leg. 

10.  Hind  shank. 


CUTS  OF  VEAL 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Shoulder. 


CUTS  OF  MUTTON  AND  LAMB 


MEAT 


173 


MUTTON 

This  is  from  sheep  at  least  three  years  old.  It  should  be 
fine-grained  and  pinkish  red  with  hard  white  fat. 

LAMB 

Spring  lamb  is  from  an  animal  eight  weeks  to  three 
months  old.  All  lamb  is  less  than  a  year  old.  The  meat 
differs  in  color  from  mutton,  but  the  two  are  more  easily 
distinguished  by  the  bone.  In  lamb,  this  is  pinker  and 
ridged  or  saw-like  at  the  joint  of  the  leg.  In  mutton,  the 
bone  is  whiter  and  smoother  and  less  ridged. 


1.  Head. 

2.  Shoulder. 

3.  Back. 

4.  Middle  cut. 
6.  Belly. 

6.  Ham. 

7.  Rib. 

8.  Loin. 


CUTS  OP  PORK 

PORK 

The  meat  should  be  fine-grained  and  firm,  and  the  fat 
should  not  be  soft.    The  meat  is  very  pale. 


174  FOOD  STUDY 

All  meat  requires  constant  care,  as  it  spoils  easily.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  not  left  wrapped  in 
paper.  If  placed  directly  on  the  ice,  much  juice  is  lost. 

Meat  which  has  become  slightly  tainted  may  be  washed 
with  water  in  which  a  little  cooking  soda  has  been  dis- 
solved. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  39.  "Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the  Home." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34.  "Meats :  Composition  and  Cooking." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  162.  "Experiment  Station  Work,"  pp.  9-10. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Account  for  the  yellow  stain  nitric  acid  leaves,  if  you  spill  it  on 
your  hands. 

2.  Does  tender  or  tough  meat  contain  more  connective  tissue  ? 

3.  If  much-used  muscle  is  tougher,  which  parts  of  a  steer  or  sheep 
would  you  expect  to  find  tough  ?    Which  tender  ? 

4.  Is  tender  or  tough  meat  likely  to  be  the  more  juicy? 

5.  For  what  reasons  should  meat  be  unwrapped  before  putting  it 
away  when  it  comes  from  market? 

6.  Why,  before  cooking,  should  meat  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth 
rather  than  washed  ? 

7.  Which  food  principle  is  practically  absent  in  meat  ?    Mention 
foods  served  with  meat,  which  would  be  particularly  adapted  to 
make  good  the  deficiency. 


ROAST  BEEF  175 

XXXIV 

TENDER  MEAT 

ROAST   BEEF 
BROILED  BEEFSTEAK  AND  CORN  PUDDING 

A.  PREPARE  ROAST  BEEF.1 

Weigh  the  beef  before  and  after  cooking.  Wipe 
beef  and,  if  necessary,  skewer  into  shape.  Dredge  all 
sides  with  salt,  pepper,  and  flour  (Why  is  this  added?). 
Insert  a  thermometer  with  the  bulb  in  the  center  of  the 
roast.  Place  fat  side  up,  in  a  hot  oven  at  428°  F.  for 
fifteen  minutes,  then  reduce  the  heat  to  342°  F.  and 
cook  until  the  inner  temperature  of  the  meat  as  shown 
by  the  thermometer  reaches,  if  rare  is  desired,  131°  to 
149°  F. ;  if  medium,  149°  to  158°  F. ;  if  well-done,  158°  to 
176°  F.  If  meat  is  quite  lean,  it  may  be  necessary  to  add 
fat  to  the  pan.  If  very  dry,  add  a  little  water.  This  is 
undesirable,  as  it  may  give  the  beef  a  "stewed"  flavor. 

Let  the  thermometer  remain  in  for  some  time  after  the 
meat  has  been  removed  from  the  oven.  Explain  the 
change  in  temperature  which  takes  place. 

Calculate  the  length  of  time  necessary  for  each  pound  of 
meat  roasted  rare,  medium,  or  well-done.  Why  is  the 
meat  put  into  a  very  hot  oven  at  first  ?  Why  is  the  tem- 
perature lowered  later  ? 

B.  Class  Experiment.     COOKING  MEAT. 

1.  Sprinkle  a  bit  of  raw  meat  with  salt.  What  effect 
does  the  salt  have  upon  the  juices  of  the 
meat? 

1  The  roast  can  be  cooked  rare  and  used  for  left-over  meat. 


176  FOOD  STUDY 

2.  Take  two  small  pieces  of  meat. 

a.  Put  one  in  a  cold  frying  pan  and  cook  it, 
heating  slowly  at  first. 

b.  Put  the  other  in  a  hot  frying  pan. 
Explain  why  the  juices  flow  in  one  case  and  not 
in  the  other. 

C.  PREPARE  BROILED  BEEFSTEAK.  When  will  you 
salt  it  ?  Serve  with  corn  pudding. 

CORN  PUDDING  (CORN  A  LA  SOUTHERN). 

To  one  can  chopped  corn,  add  two  eggs  slightly  beaten, 
one  teaspoon  of  salt,  one-eighth  teaspoon  pepper,  one  and 
one-half  tablespoons  melted  butter,  and  one  pint  scalded 
milk;  turn  into  a  buttered  pudding-dish  and  bake  in 
slow  oven  until  firm. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."  By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

Curs  OF  BEEF  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING  MEAT 

Beef  is  not  always  cut  up  in  exactly  the  same  way.  In 
general,  the  carcass  is  first  split  into  two  "sides"  of  beef, 
then  divided  into  the  fore  and  hind  quarters.  From  the 
fore  quarter  are  cut  rib  roasts  and  chuck.  The  first  ribs 
cut  off  are  the  best,  known  as  "prime."  The  chuck  ribs 
may  also  be  used  for  roasts  or  steaks.  Brisket,  shoulder, 
clod,  cross-ribs,  plate  and  navel  are  all  used  for  corned 
beef ;  while  they,  as  well  as  the  neck  and  shank,  are  used 
for  stews,  ground  meat,  or  soup  meat.  The  shank  is  used 
for  soups. 

The  hind  quarter  consists  of  loin,  rump,  round,  flank,  and 
hind  shank.  The  loin  furnishes  the  choicer  steaks,  club, 
porterhouse,  and  sirloin,  which  are  cooked  by  broiling,  or 
cut  into  roasts.  The  rump  is  used  for  steaks  and  roasts, 


CUTS  OF  BEEF 


177 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Rib. 

4.  Shoulder  cled. 

5.  Fore  shank. 

6.  Brisket. 

7.  Cross  ribs. 

8.  Plate. 

9.  Navel. 

10.  Loin. 

11.  Flank. 

12.  Rump. 

13.  Round. 

14.  Second  cut  round. 

15.  Hind  shank. 


CUTS  OF  BEEF 


178  FOOD   STUDY 

but  is  not  considered  so  choice  as  rib  and  loin.  It  furnishes 
much  edible  meat  for  the  price  paid ;  however,  it  is  some- 
what coarse.  The  round  is  divided  into  parts  called  "  top  " 
and  "bottom",  as  the  meat  lies  on  the  butcher's  table  in 
being  cut.  "Inside"  and  "outside"  would  mean  more  in 
locating  the  cut.  The  top  is  much  the  tenderer  of  the  two 
and  is  sometimes  used  for  steaks  and  roasts,  while  the 
bottom  of  the  round  serves  for  stews  and  Hamburg  steak. 
The  flank  is  sometimes  sold  as  flank  steak,  but  needs  to  be 
cut  and  pounded  to  make  it  tender.  It  is  more  often  used 
for  stewing  or  corning. 

The  other  parts  of  beef  also  used  for  eating  are  the 
heart,  liver,  kidneys,  brains,  tongue,  tail,  and  tripe  (the 
lining  of  the  stomach). 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  more  tender  meat  is  reserved 
for  roasting  and  broiling.  This  means  for  the  bulk  of  the 
meat  the  use  of  a  low  temperature.  Notice  that,  even  in 
a  well-done  roast  of  beef,  the  internal  temperature  is  below 
the  simmering  point  of  water.  The  surface,  to  be  sure,  is 
exposed  to  very  high  temperatures  and  is  correspondingly 
toughened,  but  this  small  sacrifice  is  in  order  to  furnish 
flavor,  also  in  order  to  coagulate  the  proteins  near  the 
outside  and  so  confine  the  juices.  Stewing  or  boiling,  and 
pot-roasting  or  braising  (which  is  really  steaming  and  stew- 
ing) are  the  methods  employed  in  cooking  tough  meat.  In 
all  these,  the  meat  is  exposed  to  a  much  higher  temperature 
than  is  used  in  cooking  tender  meat.  Muscle  fiber  is  such  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat  that  in  roasting  and  broiling  only  the 
outside  is  much  heated.  But  in  the  other  methods,  the 
water  or  steam  penetrates  into  the  meat,  carrying  heat  with 
it.  This  gives  a  temperature  high  enough,  with  time,  to 
soften  connective  tissue  or  even  gelatinize  it.  The  fibers, 
however,  are  not  dissolved  and  are  always  tougher  than 
in  more  tender  meat ;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  general  effect 


Porter-house  Steak 
TYPICAL  CUTS  OF  STEAK 


BEEF  STEW  179 

is  better  than  can  be  obtained  by  treating  such  meat  as  a 
better  cut. 

Since  heat  toughens  meat,  special  care  needs  to  be  exer- 
cised in  the  preparation  of  left-over  meats.  If  the  meat 
is  tender  and  already  well  cooked,  it  should  be  reheated 
but  not  recooked;  if  tough  or  insufficiently  cooked,  it 
should  be  simmered  until  tender. 

Since  tenderness  is  such  a  desirable  characteristic  that 
it  is  the  one  on  which  price  is  based,  great  pains  should  be 
taken  not  to  toughen  choice  cuts  of  meat  in  cooking,  and 
to  prepare  the  tougher  cuts  so  that  they  may  be  as  desir- 
able as  possible.  Many  cooks  woefully  fail  in  this  respect. 

REFERENCES 
As  in  last  lesson.     (Farmer's  Bulletins,  No.  39,  34  and  162.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Would  you  need  a  hotter  or  a  cooler  oven  to  roast  two  pieces  of 
beef  to  the  same  degree,  if  one  piece  were  very  large  and  the  other 
very  small  ? 

2.  How  thick  should  steak  be  cut  ? 

3.  If  you  wish  steak  well  done,  will  you  merely  cook  it  longer  ? 

4.  To  what  is  the  loss  in  weight  due  in  roasting  beef  ? 

5.  Which  cuts  of  beef  furnish  the  most  lean  meat  for  the  price  paid  ? 


XXXV 
BEEF   STEW 

DUMPLINGS 

A.     Class  Experiments.     COOKING  MEAT. 

1.  Sear  a  small  piece  of  meat  in  a  frying  pan.     Pour 

half  a  cup  of  cold  water  over  it  and  simmer  for 

half  an  hour. 


180  FOOD   STUDY 

2.  Repeat  with  a  piece  of  meat  of  the  same  size  and 
shape,  but  omit  the  searing. 

Compare  the  appearance  and  taste  of  the  resulting 
broths.  Cut  the  meat  open  and  see  whether  one  tastes 
or  appears  different  from  the  other. 

B.  PREPARE  BEEF  STEW. 

Cut  lean  beef  into  small  cubes.  Season  each  piece 
highly,  dredge  with  flour,  and  brown  on  all  sides  in  a  frying 
pan  with  a  little  suet.  Add  enough  water  to  cover  meat 
(reserving  one  piece  for  the  next  experiment),  let  it  come 
rapidly  to  the  boiling  point,  then  simmer  or  finish  the  cook- 
ing in  a  double  boiler  until  tender.  At  least  two  hours  is 
necessary.  Before  the  stew  is  finished,  diced  vegetables 
may  be  added,  and  twenty  minutes  allowed  for  them  to 
cook.  If  the  gravy  is  not  thick  enough,  a  little  flour  and 
water  may  be  added.  This  should  be  done  before  cooking 
the  dumplings.  If  left-over  roast  beef  is  used,  will  it  be 
necessary  to  brown  ?  Should  the  left-over  gravy  be  added  ? 

C.  SERVE  THE  STEW  WITH  DUMPLINGS. 

Sift  together  one  cup  of  flour,  two  teaspoons  of  baking- 
powder,  and  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoon  of  salt ;  then  stir  in 
enough  milk  to  make  a  soft  dough,  about  a  third  of  a  cup. 

1.  Drop  a  spoon  of  the  mixture  into  the  stew,  covering 
it  with  the  gravy. 

2.  Drop  the  rest  by  spoonfuls  over  the  meat  in  the  stew 
in  such  a  way  that  the  dumpling  is  held  well  out 
of  the  water. 

In  which  case  is  the  dumpling  soggy? 

D.  Class  Experiment.     KEEPING  MEAT  TENDER. 

To  show  why  meat  is  simmered  instead  of  boiled. 
Boil  the  cube  of  meat  reserved  from  (B)  for  an  hour,  and 


MEAT   INSPECTION  181 

then  compare  it  with  a  piece  of  meat  from  the  stew  which 
has  been  cooked  the  same  length  of  time. 

MEAT  INSPECTION 

Not  only  is  the  slaughtering  and  packing  of  meat  the 
largest  manufacturing  process  in  the  United  States,  but 
our  consumption  of  meat  is  very  great.  Reports  for  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  estimated  the 
per  capita  consumption  of  beef,  lamb,  mutton,  pork,  and 
veal  in  1900  as  178.75  Ibs.  while  that  of  Great  Britain  was 
only  122  Ibs.,  Germany  99  Ibs.,  and  France  80  Ibs.  More- 
over, about  a  third  of  all  the  expenditure  for  food  materials 
is  spent  for  meat.  When  this  is  realized,  as  well  as  the  fact 
that  meat  is  one  of  the  foods  "  most  subject  to  conditions 
rendering  it  unwholesome  or  even  dangerous  ",  it  is  no 
wonder  that  the  Federal  government  yearly  appropriates 
a  large  sum  of  money  for  meat  inspection  and  makes 
the  penalties  for  violation  of  the  meat-inspection  law 
much  more  severe  than  for  violation  of  the  other  food 
laws. 

Meat  may  be  dangerous,  first,  because  animal  parasites 
may  be  present,  such  as  trichina  in  pork ;  or,  second,  be- 
cause bacteria  may  be  present.  The  latter  may  be  dan- 
gerous for  two  reasons.  They  may  be  bacteria  causing 
diseases  which  are  capable  of  being  communicated  through 
the  eating  of  the  flesh,  or  they  may  be  bacteria  which 
produce  poisons  or  ptomains  in  the  meat,  which,  if  eaten, 
may  cause  illness  or  even  death. 

Federal  inspection  excludes  from  interstate  commerce 
and  exportation  all  meat  found  unfit  for  food,  and  al- 
lows only  meat  to  be  sold  which  is  considered  as  coming 
from  healthy  animals,  slaughtered  under  sanitary  condi- 
tions. Since  meat  is  an  ideal  culture  medium  for  bacteria, 


182  FOOD   STUDY 

it  is  necessary  not  only  to  see  that  it  is  from  healthy  animals 
but  that  it  is  not  infected  afterwards.  Such  infection  could 
easily  take  place  if  flies  and  dust  were  allowed,  or  if  the 
meat  were  handled  by  men  with  unclean  and  infected 
hands.  What  infection  may  mean  is  evident  from  recent 
studies  made  on  Hamburg  steak,  which  report  as  high  as 
525,000,000  bacteria  to  a  gram  of  meat,  even  average 
samples  showing  about  10,000,000.  Fortunately  these 
are  not  usually  bacteria  which  cause  disease  or  produce 
ptomains. 

As  they  know  of  this  government  inspection,  many 
people  have  an  unwarranted  feeling  of  safety  in  buying 
meat.  Too  often  it  is  not  realized  that  the  Federal 
government  can  control  only  those  slaughter  houses  which 
send  meat  into  interstate  commerce.  Smaller  houses, 
selling  in  one  state  only,  are  not  under  federal  juris- 
diction at  all.  Hence,  state  and  city  inspection  laws  are 
also  necessary. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular 

125.    "The  Federal  Meat-Inspection  Service." 
Commercial  Geographies. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantages  are  there  in  serving  meat  cooked,  instead  of 
raw? 

2.  What  methods  of  preserving  meat  are  allowed  by  the  Federal 
law? 

3.  Is  there  any  limit  to  the  time  meat  may  be  kept  in  cold  storage 
before  being  sold  ? 

4.  What  are  the  causes  of  the  increased  cost  of  meat  ? 

5.  What  trade  in  meat  has  the  United  States  with  other  countries  ? 

6.  How  much  Hamburg  steak  would  you  buy  to  serve  four  people  ? 
How  much  tenderloin  steak?    How  large  a  roast  of  beef?    How 
heavy  a  leg  of  lamb  ? 


LEFT-OVERS  183 

XXXVI 
LEFT-OVERS 

SOUTHERN  SPOON  BREAD 

A.  LEFT-OVERS.     Each  student  is  to  come  to  class 
ready  to  prepare  some  dish  from  "left-over"  meat. 

B.  SPOON  BREAD.     Serve  the  dish  prepared  in  (^4) 
with  Southern  Spoon  Bread.     Use  two  tablespoons  of 
cornmeal  and  other  ingredients  in  proportion. 

SOUTHERN  SPOON  BREAD. 

Place  two  cups  of  cornmeal  mixed  with  a  quarter  of  a 
cup  of  flour  in  a  strainer  and  pour  boiling  water  over  it. 
Let  the  mixture  drain.  Add 

1  tsp.  salt 

1  tbsp.  melted  fat 

2 1  c.  sour  milk  or  buttermilk 

1  egg,  beaten  slightly 

1  tsp.  soda 

Bake  in  a  buttered  dish  until  of  the  consistency  of  a  firm 
mush.    Serve  with  gravy  or  jelly. 

PROTEINS 

Much  has  been  said  about  proteins,  but  to  understand 
their  relative  value  and  the  place  in  the  diet,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  more  about  them.  American  physiologists  are 
using  the  classification  of  which  a  simplified  form  is  given 
here.  The  proteins  are  divided  into  three  main  classes : 

I.   Simple  proteins,  which  are  found  as  such. 

a.  Albumins  —  as  found  in  egg  white,  in  meat,  in 
wheat,  in  milk,  and  in  many  other  protein  foods. 


184 


FOOD   STUDY 


U.S. Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.C.True.  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.r7LANGWORTHY 


Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

nmD      813^      w^m      ^^      rmrni 

Fat          Carbohydrates         Ash 


Proton 


Water 


Fuel  Value 


.WALNUT  CHESTNUT 

-Protein:  16.6  ***»W-^te^"**  ^ 

Fat:7.0 


2825  CALORICS  PER   POUND 


3125  CAUJR1C5  PC*  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OP  NUTS 


PROTEINS  185 

b.  Globulins  —  of  which  the  myosin  of  meat  is  a 
good  example.  It  is  also  present  in  small 
quantities  in  egg  white  and  in  wheat,  as  well  as 
in  many  other  foods. 

Gluten  from  wheat 
is  made  up  of  two 
proteins,  glutenin 


c.  Glutelins. 

d.  Alcohol-soluble  proteins. 


which     belongs     to 
group  (c)   and  glia- 


din  which  is  an 
alcohol-soluble  pro- 
tein. 

e.  Albuminoids  —  of  which  collagen,  elastin,  and 
ossein  of  bone  are  examples. 

II.  Conjugated  proteins  — which  are  proteins  linked  with 
some  other  substance.  '  Casein,  which  is  protein 
linked  with  a  phosphorus  compound  and  is  the  chief 
protein  of  milk,  is  one  example.  Haemoglobin,  which 
is  protein  linked  with  the  coloring  matter  of  blood, 
is  another. 

III.  Derived  proteins.  These  are  formed  or  derived  from 
the  others.  For  example,  in  digestion  proteins  are 
changed  first  into  meta-proteins,  then  into  proteoses, 
and  peptones;  these  last  three  are  all  derived 
proteins.  When  protein  is  coagulated,  as  egg  white 
when  it  is  cooked,  it  becomes  a  derived  protein. 

All  these  proteins  can  be  still  further  broken  down  into 
amino  acids.  This  action  is  probably  largely  carried  out 
in  digestion,  and  then  these  amino  acids  are  afterwards 
combined  and  built  up  into  body  proteins  if  they  are  used 
to  repair  tissue.  But  analysis  shows  that  not  all  proteins 
contain  the  same  amino  acids,  and  even  where  the  same 
acids  are  present,  they  vary  greatly  in  amount.  This 


186  FOOD  STUDY 

would  make  us  suspect  that  the  different  proteins  might 
have  different  food  values,  and  experiments  have  shown 
this  to  be  true.  Certain  proteins  when  used  alone  seem 
insufficient.  While  some  will  perfectly  support  life  and 
growth,  others  will  support  life,  but  not  growth,  and 
still  others  will  not  support  life  at  all.  Casein  is  a  good 
example  of  the  first,  while  it  has  been  known  for  a  long 
while  that  gelatine  had  the  characteristics  of  the  third  class. 
For  a  while  gelatine  was  not  called  a  protein  at  all.  Now 
it  is  known  by  analysis  that  the  difficulty  with  gelatine  is 
that  certain  of  the  amino  acids  found  in  casein  are  absent. 
This  does  not  make  the  acids  which  are  present  of  no 
value,  but  means  that  gelatine  is  incomplete  by  itself  and 
needs  to  be  supplemented  by  proteins  which  contain  the 
missing  amino  acids. 

As  the  body  proteins  are  many,  and  also  varied  in  the 
kinds  and  amounts  of  amino  acids  they  contain,  it  will 
easily  be  seen  why  it  is  so  difficult  to  state  an  exact  amount 
of  protein  which  is  needed  daily  in  the  diet.  It  undoubtedly 
makes  a  difference  what  the  proteins  are  that  are  eaten. 
Since  so  little  really  is  known  about  the  whole  matter,  we 
have  here  one  of  the  best  arguments  for  variety  in  diet, 
that  all  the  needed  substances  may  be  present.  Until 
more  is  known,  it  will  be  impossible  to  settle  the  question 
whether  a  vegetarian  diet  is  superior  to  one  which  contains 
animal  protein.  Many  people  who  argue  for  vegetarian- 
ism are  advocates  of  it  only  in  its  modified  form,  that  is, 
they  believe  in  the  use  of  milk  and  eggs,  but  not  in  the 
use  of  meat  and  fish  which  involves  the  sacrifice  of  life. 

So  far  as  is  known,  there  is  no  essential  difference  be- 
tween proteins  from  vegetable  sources,  and  from  animal 
sources,  but  it  is  true  that  because  of  the  way  they  are 
combined,  the  latter  are  often  much  more  completely 
absorbed  and,  perhaps,  are  more  quickly  digested  as  well. 


PROTEINS  187 

Vegetarians  are  apparently  proving  that  meat-eating 
is  not  essential  to  life.  Still  it  is  true  that  people  like 
meat,  and  that  the  dominating  races  of  the  world  are  meat 
eaters,  although  we  are  not  sure  whether  that  is  true  be- 
cause of,  or  in  spite  of,  that  fact.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  little  evidence  that  the  vegetarians  are  really 
any  better  off  physically  than  the  meat  eaters.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  endurance  is  better  in  those  who  eat 
less  protein  than  in  those  who  eat  much,  but  this  is  entirely 
aside  from  the  source  of  the  protein.  Fisher,  at  Yale 
University,  has  tried  experiments  in  which  people  who  ate 
less  protein  showed  much  greater  ability  to  carry  on  given 
exercises  than  did  those  who  habitually  used  more  protein. 
Such  tests  as  deep  knee-bending,  leg-raising,  and  holding 
the  arms  out  horizontally,  were  tried.  Not  only  could  the 
low-protein  consumers  hold  out  longer,  but  they  were  less 
exhausted  afterwards  and  suffered  less  from  sore  muscles. 
Whether  this  effect  is  due  to  the  lack  of  alkaline  salts  in 
meat,  or  to  some  other  cause,  is  not  known.  However, 
considering  all  the  evidence,  it  would  seem  as  if  Americans 
at  least  would  do  well  to  lessen  the  amount  of  meat  they 
habitually  consume.  As  we  are  the  greatest  meat  eaters 
among  the  civilized  nations,  it  would  seem  that  this  could 
be  done  with  perfect  safety  and  possible  benefit. 


REFERENCES 
As  in  previous  chapter. 

Also  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  526.     "Mut- 
ton and  Its  Value  in  the  Diet." 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  casserole  cookery  especially  adapted  to  the  preparation 
of  tough  meat  ? 

2.  List  good  ways  of  preparing  different  left-over  meats. 


188  FOOD   STUDY 

3.  Make  a  table  showing  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  best,  of  a 
fairly  desirable,  and  of  a  cheap  cut  of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  and 
pork.    Also  show  the  cost  of  liver,  kidney,  tripe,  heart,  sweetbreads, 
tongue,  brains,  ham,  and  sausage. 

4.  Read  up  on  the  subject  and  debate  the  question  of  vegetarian- 
ism. 


XXXVII 

MEAT  SOUPS 

A.  Class  Experiment. 

THE  SOLUBLE  CONSTITUENTS  OF  MEAT. 

1.  Place  a  two-inch  cube  of  beef  in  a  third  of  a  cup  of  cold 
water.     Let  it  soak  half  an  hour,  then  heat  slowly  to 
boiling,  noting  (1)  the  temperature  at  which  coagu- 
lation takes  place  and  (2)  that  at  which  the  color 
changes.     Continue  heating  ten  minutes. 

2.  Cook  a  second  cube  of  exactly  the  same  size  as  in  (1), 
but  do  not  soak  it.       ; 

3.  Take  a  third  cube  like  the  others,  grind  or  chop  it 
into  very  small  pieces,  and  cook  as  in  (1). 

Compare  the  resulting  broths. 

B.  PREPARE  SOUP. 

Allow  a  pint  and  a  half  of  water  for  each  pound  of 
meat  and  bone.  Remove  the  fat  by  passing  a  small 
piece  of  ice,  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  around  on  the 
surface  of  the  soup.  Divide  into  two  portions. 

1.  Clear  the  first  portion  with  the  white  of  an  egg.  Beat 
the  egg  slightly  and  crush  the  shell,  allowing  one  egg 
white  and  shell  to  each  two  quarts  of  soup.  Add 
to  the  soup,  bring  slowly  to  the  boiling  point,  and 
skim,  or  strain  through  cloth. 


MEAT  SOUPS  189 

2.  Serve  the  second  portion  with  vegetables,  or  rice, 
macaroni,  or  barley. 

C.    Class  Experiment.     THE  USE  OF  BONES  IN  SOUP. 

Examine  the  structure  of  a  piece  of  bone.  Put  two 
pieces  as  nearly  alike  as  possible  to  soak,  one  in  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  the  other  in  water.  Let  them  stand  in 
a  cool  place  for  several  days.  Compare  the  results.  On 
what  has  the  acid  acted  ?  Examine  the  ossein  which  is 
left.  Now  cook  each  bone  separately  in  just  enough 
water  to  cover  and  until  the  water  is  boiled  down  to  one- 
half  the  amount.  Let  cool.  Compare  the  consistency. 

MEAT  SOUPS 

Liebig,  who  is  sometimes  called  the  father  of  organic 
chemistry,  taught  that  protein  was  the  sole  source  of 
muscular  energy,  and  that  meat  extracts  were  of  great 
nutritive  value.  Even  Liebig  afterwards  realized  that 
this  last  was  wrong,  that  the  meat  extract  was  a  stimulant 
instead  of  a  food.  But  notwithstanding,  the  notion  was 
held  in  popular  opinion  for  a  long  time,  and  some  people 
to-day  still  believe  the  meat  extract  gives  strength  to 
invalids.  True  meat  extracts  are  mainly  composed  of  the 
flavoring  matter  of  meat  with  some  mineral  salts.  Practi- 
cally no  fat,  no  gelatine,  or  other  proteins  are  present. 
We  can  see  readily  that  this  means  no  real  food  value. 
The  extracts  may  have  then-  place,  however,  as  stimulants. 
They  are  often  fed  to  invalids  under  special  conditions, 
or  used  to  flavor  soups  or  sauces. 

Only  slightly  more  nutritious  are  the  home-made  meat 
broths  and  beef  tea.  They  contain  some  protein,  partly 
gelatine,  and  a  little  fat,  but  are,  after  all,  mostly  water. 
A  pint  of  beef  broth  made  from  a  pound  of  beef  and  a  half 


190  FOOD   STUDY 

pound  of  veal  bone  shows  less  than  one  and  a  half  per  cent 
of  protein,  and  about  one  and  a  half  per  cent  of  fat,  and 
although  a  strong  soup,  it  contains  over  ninety-five  per 
cent  of  water.  As  soups  may  contain  even  ninety-eight 
per  cent  of  water,  it  is  quite  evident  that  anyone  fed  on 
beef  broth  would  not  be  getting  much  food. 

Meat  juices,  both  home-made  and  preserved,  contain 
more  nutriment.  The  home-made  juices  differ  according 
to  the  cut  of  beef  used  and  the  method  of  extraction. 
They  average  about  five  per  cent  of  coagulable  protein. 
But  Hutchison  calculates  that  about  three  pints  of  such 
juice  would  be  necessary  to  feed  an  invalid  for  a  day. 
While  the  commercial  beef  juices  run  higher  in  protein 
than  those  extracted  at  home,  their  cost  is  very  great. 
Hutchison  suggests,  therefore,  the  substitution  of  egg 
white  with  water  flavored  with  beef  extract,  when  beef 
juice  is  especially  called  for. 

It  is  evident  that  meat  broths,  extract,  tea,  and  the 
like,  are  all  low  in  food  value.  Nevertheless  they  may  have 
a  place  in  the  diet.  They  are  used  sometimes  with  other 
food  to  stimulate  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices  and  to  act 
as  appetizers.  This  is  their  logical  use  at  the  beginning 
of  a  dinner.  Because  they  are  really  light  food,  they  are 
better  before  a  hearty  meal  than  a  thickened  cream  soup, 
or  a  puree.  Sometimes  they  are  used  when  it  is  better  for 
the  patient  not  to  have  much  to  eat,  to  satisfy  his  desire 
for  food.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  person  has  broken 
a  leg  and  is  laid  up  for  a  while.  It  is  difficult  to  make 
such  a  person,  not  sick  and  with  a  normal  appetite,  realize 
that  he  is  better  off  with  less  food  than  he  needs  when  he 
is  more  active.  Here,  broths  and  soups  and  beverages 
are  an  aid  in  adding  bulk  to  the  diet,  without  furnishing 
too  much  food. 

If  meat  broths  contain  so  little  nutriment,  evidently  the 


GELATINE  DISHES  191 

meat  used  to  make  them  is  almost  as  nutritious  as  before 
it  was  used.  It  has  lost  flavor  and  needs  to  be  made 
palatable,  but  with  proper  treatment  is  still  valuable  as 
food. 

REFEKENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Bulletin  No.  27.  "Bouillon  Cubes: 
Their  Contents  and  Food  Value  Compared  with  Meat  Extracts 
and  Home-made  Preparations  of  Meat." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  bone  added  to  soup?    Should  it  be  split  into  pieces? 

2.  Consult  cook  books  and  make  lists  of  herbs  and  of  vegetables 
which  may  be  used  in  meat  soups. 

3.  Would  you  allow  more  water  to  meat  in  making  soup  with 
vegetables  than  without  ? 

4.  Devise  ways  for  utilizing  the  meat  which  has  been  used  in  soup 
making.     Is  such  use  worth  while  ? 


XXXVIII 

GELATINE   DISHES 

LEMON  JELLY 
SNOW  PUDDING 
BAVARIAN  CREAM 

A.    Class  Experiments.     GELATINE. 

1.  Soak  a  fourth  of  a  teaspoon  of  gelatine  in  a  table- 
spoon of  cold  water  for  five  minutes.  Does  it 
dissolve?  What  has  happened?  Add  two 
tablespoons  of  boiling  water.  Compare  the 
result  of  putting  two  tablespoons  of  boiling 
water  directly  on  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoon  of 


192  FOOD   STUDY 

gelatine  not  been  soaked  in  cold  water.     Which 
method  will  you  use  in  preparing  gelatine? 

2.  Measure  the  number  of  tablespoons  of  gelatine 
in  a  box.     How  much  does  a  tablespoon  of 
gelatine  weigh  ?    How  much  jelly  will  it  make  ? 
See  directions  with  the  box. 

3.  Compare  the  cost,  the  net  weight,   and  the 
amount  of  jelly   supposed  to   be  made   from 
packages  of  at  least  three  different  well-known 
gelatines. 

B.    PREPARE  GELATINE  DISHES. 

Dissolve  one  tablespoon  of  gelatine  in  nine  table- 
spoons of  water.  Divide  into  three  portions.  How  much 
more  liquid  can  you  add  to  each  and  obtain  the  proper 
consistency  for  jelly? 

1.  Make  the  first  portion  into  a  plain  jelly,  using  lemon 
or  orange  juice  for  the  additional  liquid.     For  the 
amount  of  flavoring  and  sweetening  follow  the  rec- 
ipes supplied  with  the  box. 

2.  Make  the  second  portion  into  a  sponge.    Follow 
the  recipe  for  snow  pudding. 

3.  Make  the  third  into  a  Bavarian  cream. 

Different  flavors  may  be  used,  or  a  single  flavor,  —  as, 
for  example,  coffee  may  be  used  in  all  three. 

Place  each  in  a  wet  mold,  put  in  a  cool  place  to  harden. 
If  you  wish  to  use  them  at  once,  surround  the  molds  with 
crushed  ice  and  salt. 

GELATINE 

Gelatine  for  commerce  is  made  from  the  skin,  ligaments, 
and  bones  of  animals.  It  is  put  on  the  market  in  a  number 
of  forms.  Of  these,  sheet  gelatine  is  possibly  the  cheapest, 
but  pulverized  gelatine  is  the  most  convenient. 


GELATINE  193 

As  a  gelatine  jelly  usually  contains  only  about  two  per 
cent  of  gelatine,  such  dishes  evidently  are  not  very  hearty. 
For  this  reason,  they  make  excellent  light  desserts  to  use 
after  a  substantial  meal,  or  as  a  hot-weather  dish.  Since 
they  are  also  easily  digested  and  absorbed,  they  are  valu- 
able, too,  in  invalid  diets.  But,  combined  with  much 
cream  and  sugar,  a  gelatine  dish  may  be  made  very  nutri- 
tious. 

A  word  of  warning  must  be  given  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
pineapple  and  gelatine.  This  fruit  contains  a  ferment 
which  is  capable  of  liquefying  the  gelatine,  so  that  if  the 
fruit  is  used  raw,  the  jelly  fails  to  set.  If  the  pineapple 
is  heated,  this  ferment  is  destroyed ;  so  that  pineapple 
jelly  may  be  made  with  either  canned  pineapple,  or  fresh 
pineapple  which  has  been  stewed  for  a  few  moments. 

In  making  meat  soups,  gelatine  is  formed  from  the  bone 
and  connective  tissue  which  are  present  in  the  meat. 
Since  the  bones  of  young  animals  contain  more  gelatine- 
making  material  than  is  found  in  the  bones  of  older  animals, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  meat  of  older  animals  has 
most  connective  tissue,  this  explains  why  veal  bones  are 
so  often  used  with  beef  in  soup  making.  Hutchison  quotes 
experiments  which  show  that  the  buying  of  bones  to  obtain 
gelatine  is  much  more  expensive  than  adding  commercial 
gelatine  to  soup,  and  suggests  that  the  bones  themselves 
should  be  used  only  in  order  to  utilize  what  would  other- 
wise be  waste  material. 

Agar-agar,  a  Japanese  sea-weed,  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  gelatine,  especially  by  vegetarians.  It  passes 
through  the  body  without  being  digested,  and  so  has  no 
food  value.  It  has  the  advantage  of  not  being  so  easily 
liquefied  as  gelatine  and  can  be  made  without  ice  in  warm 
weather.  The  vegetable  gelatines  on  the  market  are 
usually  agar-agar  preparations. 


194  FOOD   STUDY 

Irish  moss  is  another  seaweed  sold  in  a  dried  form.  It 
has  a  peculiar  flavor  which  is  greatly  relished  by  some 
people.  Like  agar-agar,  it  is  probably  not  nutritious. 
When  made  into  a  jelly  with  milk,  it  may,  however, 
furnish  a  pleasing  variety/  and  is  at  least  as  nourishing  as 
the  milk  alone. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  cost  of  a  plain  fruit  gelatine  with  the  cost  of  the 
same  dish  made  with  a  "ready-to-mix"  preparation. 

2.  What  advantage  have  the  pulverized  gelatines  over  the  sheet 
form? 

3.  How  many  classes  of  gelatine  desserts  are  there  ?     Consult  cook 
books. 

4.  What  relation  is  there  between  gelatine  and  glue  ? 


XXXIX 

REVIEW  LESSON 

DINNER 

SPLIT  PEA  SOUP 

SPANISH  CREAM 

PREPARE  AND  SERVE  A  DINNER. 
Suggested  menu : 

Soup  —  Split  pea  soup. 
Meat  —  Pork  chops. 
Vegetables  — 

Creamed  string  beans  (canned),  or 

Creamed  turnips. 

Mashed  potatoes. 
Dessert  —  Spanish  cream. 


STYLES   OF  SERVING  195 

SPLIT  PEA  SOUP. 

Soak  a  cup  of  peas  for  an  hour  or  so,  then  drain,  add  a 
quart  of  cold  water,  and  a  slice  or  two  of  onion,  and  simmer 
until  the  peas  are  soft.  This  will  take  at  least  two  hours. 
Rub  through  a  strainer,  and  reheat,  thinning  with  milk 
until  the  consistency  of  soup.  Thicken  with  flour  as  in 
potato  soup.  A  tablespoon  of  butter  will  improve  the 
flavor,  or  a  piece  of  fat  salt  pork  may  be  simmered  with 
the  peas. 

SPANISH  CKEAM. 

i  box  gelatine  or  Yolks  3  eggs 

1  tbsp.  granulated  gelatine  ^  c.  sugar  (scant) 

3  c.  milk  |  tsp.  salt 

Whites  3  eggs  1  tsp.  vanilla 

Scald  milk  with  gelatine,  add  sugar,  pour  slowly  on 
yolks  of  eggs  slightly  beaten.  Return  to  double  boiler 
and  cook  until  thickened,  stirring  constantly;  remove 
from  range,  add  salt,  flavoring,  and  whites  of  eggs  beaten 
stiff.  Turn  into  individual  molds,  first  dipped  in  cold 
water,  and  chill;  serve  with  cream.  More  gelatine  will 
be  required  if  large  molds  are  used. 

From  the  "Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."  By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 


STYLES  OP  SERVING 

There  are  two  styles  of  serving  meals  —  the  English 
and  the  Russian. 

According  to  the  English  style,  everything  is  served 
at  the  table,  —  soup  from  a  tureen,  meat  from  a 
platter  placed  in  front  of  the  host,  the  dishes  being 
passed  either  by  a  maid  or  by  those  seated  at  table. 
According  to  the  general  custom,  the  hostess  serves  the 


196  FOOD   STUDY 

soup,  salad,  and  dessert ;  the  host,  the  meat,  fish,  and  the 
vegetables  to  be  placed  on  the  plate,  while  other  members 
of  the  family  serve  the  butter  and  such  vegetables  as  are 
eaten  from  side  dishes.  In  modern  practice  the  latter 
are  eliminated  as  far  as  possible,  for  only  vegetables  which 
cannot  be  eaten  with  a  fork  are  served  in  separate  dishes. 

In  the  Russian  style,  serving  dishes  are  not  placed  on 
the  table ;  either  the  portion  of  food  on  a  plate  is  placed 
before  the  individual  to  be  served,  or  the  serving  dishes 
are  passed  in  turn  to  each  person  and  returned  to  the  serv- 
ing table.  The  latter  is  the  usual  formal  style  of  service 
and  cannot  be  carried  out  without  a  maid. 

In  common  practice  these  two  styles  are  often  combined. 
Soup,  nowadays,  is  almost  always  served  in  the  Russian 
style,  whether  a  maid  is  present  or  not.  With  a  maid,  the 
vegetables  are  frequently  served  in  the  Russian  style, 
while  the  roast  is  carved  on  the  table  and  served  in  the  Eng- 
lish style.  In  this  case,  the  maid  places  an  empty  plate 
before  the  host  and,  while  he  is  filling  it,  she  takes  another 
plate  in  her  right  hand ;  then,  from  the  left  of  the  host, 
having  taken  up  the  filled  plate  in  her  left  hand,  she  puts 
the  empty  plate  in  its  place.  The  filled  plate  is  placed 
before  the  individual  for  whom  it  is  intended,  from  his 
right.  Then,  with  another  empty  plate,  the  waitress  re- 
turns to  the  left  of  the  host  for  the  next  filled  plate.  Dishes 
from  which  an  individual  is  to  serve  himself  are,  of  course, 
passed  to  the  left,  and  all  serving  may  be  carried  on  from 
that  side,  but  the  placing  of  plates  and  cups  from  the  right 
is  considered  the  better  form.  Hot  plates  and  vegetables 
may  be  held  on  a  folded  napkin;  a  tray  is  used  for 
creamer  and  sugar  bowl,  or  small  dishes  of  jelly  and  the 
like,  also  for  silver. 

Strict  Russian  service  requires  a  plate  always  before 
each  individual  except  when  all  are  changed  for  the 


STYLES  OF  SERVING  197 

dessert.  The  empty  plate  is  removed  with  one  hand, 
as  the  filled  plate  is  placed  with  the  other  hand. 

Much  more  thought  must  be  put  into  the  serving  when 
no  maid  is  present,  for  continual  rising  from  the  table  is 
disturbing  to  all.  A  maid  can  go  to  the  pantry  for  a  for- 
gotten utensil  without  calling  attention  to  the  oversight, 
but  the  omission  is  extremely  noticeable  if  some  one  must 
rise  from  the  table.  Extra  care  must  be  taken,  then,  to 
see  that  the  serving  has  been  thought  through  in  detail 
and  that  everything  which  will  be  needed  has  been  placed 
near  at  hand.  A  wheeled  tray  or  serving  table  beside  the 
hostess  makes  it  possible  to  arrange  for  many  things  to  be 
within  reach  without  crowding  the  table.  Food  must  be 
selected  which  will  not  spoil  by  standing  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  meal  until  the  appropriate  time  for  serving  it. 
If  there  are  children  in  the  family  who  are  capable  of  doing 
so,  it  is  better  to  have  them  remove  the  courses  than  to 
have  the  hostess  leave  the  table. 

It  is  an  art  to  accomplish  the  clearing  of  the  table  suc- 
cessfully, avoiding  noise  and  the  piling  of  dishes,  yet  with 
sufficient  rapidity.  Formal  service,  which  calls  for  the 
removal  of  one  plate  at  a  time,  is  often  too  slow,  even  when 
a  plate  is  taken  in  each  hand.  If  plates  must  be  piled, 
remove  the  plate  from  the  left  and,  holding  it  out  of  sight 
as  far  away  from  the  table  as  possible,  take  up  the  side 
dishes,  one  by  one,  with  the  other  hand,  and  pile  them 
on  the  plate  held  in  the  left  hand.  It  is  much  better,  how- 
ever, to  use  as  few  side  dishes  as  possible  and  to  remove 
them  on  a  tray,  after  the  main  plates  have  been  carried 
away.  After  the  individual  dishes,  the  serving  dishes  are 
removed,  then  any  other  dishes,  salt  and  pepper  holders 
and  the  like.  Crumbs  are  removed  before  dessert,  either 
with  a  tray  and  scraper,  or,  better,  a  plate  and  folded 
napkin.  With  doilies,  the  latter  method,  must  be  used. 


198  FOOD   STUDY 

When  there  is  no  maid,  the  removal  of  crumbs  from  the 
table  may  be  omitted. 

REFERENCES 

ALLEN.    "Table  Service." 
Books  on  letter  writing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Write  a  note  inviting  a  friend  to   dinner  (a)  informally,  (6) 
formally. 

2.  Write  notes  accepting  or  declining  these  invitations. 

3.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  hostess  ? 

4.  What  are  the  points  to  be  made  in  training  a  waitress  concern- 
ing her  appearance,  conduct,  and  duties  ? 


XL 

POULTRY 
ROAST  CHICKEN  —  FRIED  CHICKEN 

A.   Class  Work.     CHICKEN. 

1.  Weigh  a  chicken.    Compare  with  weight  after  it  is 
cleaned  and  dressed,  but  not  stuffed. 

2.  Clean  and  dress  a  chicken  and  truss  as  for  roasting. 
If  the  head  and  feet  have  not  been  removed,  cut 
them  off.     Remove  pin  feathers,  using  a  small  knife 
and  being  careful  not  to  break  the  skin.     Turn  back 
the  skin  at  the  neck  so  as  to  cut  off  the  neck  close  to 
the  body,  and  pull  out  the  windpipe  and  the  crop. 
Starting  just  below  the  breastbone,  make  a  lengthwise 
incision  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  hand  and  re- 
move the  entrails,  gently,  so  as  not  to  break  the  gall 
bladder.     Save  the  gizzard,  heart,  and  liver,  but  dis- 
card the  gall  bladder.     Remove  the  lungs  and  the 
kidneys,  saving  the  latter.    With  a  knife  remove  the 


CHICKEN  199 

oil  bag  from  the  tail.  Singe  the  chicken  over  a  flame, 
and  wash  it  inside  and  out.  With  a  knife  slit  the  giz- 
zard all  around  to  the  inner  lining  and  pull  off  the 
flesh.  Trim  the  heart.  The  neck  and  giblets  are 
simmered,  and  the  broth  with  the  meat  finely  chopped 
is  used  in  making  gravy. 
To  truss  fowl : 

Draw  thighs  close  to  body  and  hold  by  inserting  a 
steel  skewer  under  middle  joint,  running  it  through 
the  body,  coming  out  under  middle  joint  on 
other  side.  Cut  piece  three-fourths  inch  wide  from 
neck  skin,  and  with  it  fasten  legs  together  at  ends; 
or  cross  drumsticks,  tie  securely  with  a  long  string 
and  fasten  to  tail.  Place  the  wings  close  to  the  body 
and  hold  them  by  inserting  a  second  skewer  through 
the  wing,  body,  and  wing  on  opposite  side.  Draw 
the  neck  skin  under  back  and  fasten  with  a  small 
wooden  skewer.  Turn  bird  on  its  breast.  Cross 
string  attached  to  tail  piece  and  draw  it  around  each 
end  of  lower  skewer;  again  cross  string  and  draw 
around  each  end  of  upper  skewer ;  fasten  string  in  a 
knot  and  cut  off  ends.  In  birds  that  are  not  stuffed, 
legs  are  often  passed  through  incisions  cut  in  body 
under  bones  near  tail. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."     By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

3.  Instead  of  roasting  the  chicken,  cut  it  up  and  prepare 
as  fried  chicken. 

If  the  chicken  is  tender,  sprinkle  the  pieces  with  flour 
and  salt  and  saute  them  in  hot  fat  in  a  frying  pan. 
When  brown,  lower  the  heat,  cover,  and  cook  slowly 
for  a  few  moments.  If  meat  is  tough,  parboil  until 
tender,  then  saute,  as  before,  until  brown.  In  this 
case,  the  broth  is  used  to  make  the  gravy,  and  the 


200  FOOD   STUDY 

flour  is  browned;  in  the  first  way,  milk  is  used  as 
the  liquid  and  the  flour  is  not  browned.  In  either 
case,  use  the  fat  in  which  the  chicken  has  been  cooked. 

POULTRY 

While  in  its  broader  sense  the  term  meat  includes  the 
flesh  of  all  animals,  in  its  narrow  sense  it  includes  only 
beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  and  pork.  These  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  "  butcher's  meat."  Poultry  is  the  name  given 
to  all  domestic  birds  suitable  for  food.  Pigeon  and  squab, 
together  with  all  birds  and  animals  which  are  hunted,  are 
known  as  game. 

With  modern  methods  of  cold  storage  and  incubator 
hatching,  there  is  no  longer  much  need  of  considering 
season  in  connection  with  chicken.  It  is  always  found  in 
market.  Young  chickens  weighing  about  a  pound  and  a 
half  are  often  called  broilers.  In  selecting  chicken,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  signs  of  age.  The  chicken  is  known 
by  its  smooth  feet  and  skin,  and  abundance  of  pin  feathers, 
and  the  soft  cartilage  at  the  end  of  the  breastbone.  Long 
hairs  and  hard,  scaly  feet  are  signs  of  an  older  bird.  A 
good  turkey  is  plump  with  smooth,  dark  legs,  and  also 
shows  soft  cartilage  at  the  end  of  the  breastbone.  Young 
geese,  like  young  chickens,  have  an  abundance  of  pin 
feathers. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  recom- 
mends that  poultry  be  shipped  without  the  removal  of 
the  entrails.  In  order  to  ship  for  long  distances,  poultry, 
after  killing,  must  be  kept  in  a  temperature  of  about  32°  F. 
While  below  30°  F.  the  flesh  becomes  "frosted",  at  35°  F. 
it  deteriorates  too  rapidly  for  good  results.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  thaw  frozen  poultry  before  it  is  sold.  This 
gives  opportunity  for  deterioration  to  take  place,  and  it 


THE   DIGESTIBILITY  OF  MEAT  201 

would  be  much  better  if  customers  would  demand  such 
poultry  still  frozen. 

THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OP  MEAT 

The  fibers  in  the  meat  of  chicken  and  turkey  are  shorter 
than  in  beef  and  mutton.  This  makes  them  tender. 
The  white  meat  of  chicken  is  especially  tender  on  account 
of  the  tender  fibers  and  the  small  amount  of  connective 
tissue.  Not  much  is  really  known,  however,  in  regard  to 
the  comparative  digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  meat. 
Many  books  quote  experiments  which  have  determined  the 
length  of  time  meat  remains  in  the  stomach.  Undoubt- 
edly this  time  is  affected  by  the  toughness,  the  method  of 
cooking,  the  amount  of  fat  present,  and  the  degree  to 
which  it  has  been  ground  up  by  the  teeth,  as  well  as  by  the 
kind  of  meat  eaten.  It  is  well  proved  that  much  fat 
means  that  the  meat  stays  a  longer  time  in  the  stomach. 

Tables  have  been  made  from  these  results,  in  regard 
to  ease  and  lack  of  discomfort  in  digestion,  which  agree 
pretty  well  with  popular  opinions.  In  general,  the  rarer 
the  meat  and  the  less  fat  present,  the  more  quickly  it  passes 
from  the  stomach.  But  as  little  is  known  regarding  intes- 
tinal digestion,  this  is  only  part  of  the  story.  It  has  been 
shown,  however,  that  differences  in  digestibility  are  not 
at  all  marked  if  determined  by  the  test  of  the  total  amount 
which  is  digested  and  absorbed.  Then  meat  ranks  with 
milk  and  eggs,  being  from  ninety-seven  to  ninety-eight 
per  cent  digested  and  absorbed.  As  protein  in  general  is 
not  more  than  ninety-five  per  cent  digested  and  absorbed, 
meat  must  be  ranked  as  a  food  that  is  well  utilized  and 
fairly  rapidly  digested. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  there  is  any  essential 
difference  in  the  amount  and  kinds  of  extractives  present 


202  FOOD   STUDY 

in  "  light "  and  "  dark  ",  or  in  "  red  "  meat.  That  there  are 
slight  differences  is  indicated  by  the  distinctive  flavors  of 
the  different  kinds,  but  that  these  are  sufficient  to  warrant 
the  allowing  of  some  and  the  exclusion  of  others  from 
the  diet  under  different  circumstances,  seems  hardly  war- 
ranted. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  182.     "Poultry 
as  Food." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kinds  of  game  are  found  in  your  local  market?     When? 

2.  Is  game  brought  into  market  usually  cheap  ?     Is  rabbit  ? 

3.  Give  a  table  showing  seasons  when  chicken,  fowl,  turkey,  geese, 
and  ducks  are  best,  and  give  price  per  pound. 

4.  Discuss  good  methods  of  preparing  a  tough  bird. 


XLI 
FISH 

BAKED  FISH  —  BOILED  FISH  WITH  EGG  SAUCE 
SCALLOPED  FISH  —  STEWED  TOMATO 

A.    Class  Work.     PREPARE  BAKED  FISH. 
BAKED  HADDOCK  WITH  STUFFING. 

Clean  a  four-pound  haddock,  sprinkle  with  salt  inside 
and  out,  stuff,  and  sew.  Cut  five  diagonal  gashes  on 
each  side  of  backbone  and  insert  narrow  strips  of  fat  salt 
pork,  having  gashes  on  one  side  come  between  gashes  on 
other  side.  Shape  with  skewers  in  form  of  letter  S,  and 
fasten  skewers  with  small  twine.  Place  on  greased  fish- 


FISH  203 

sheet  in  a  dripping-pan,  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper, 
brush  over  with  melted  butter,  dredge  with  flour,  and  place 
around  fish  small  pieces  of  fat  salt  pork.  Bake  one  hour 
in  hot  oven,  basting  as  soon  as  fat  is  tried  out,  and  continue 
basting  every  ten  minutes. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."     By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

B.  THE  EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  WAYS  OF  "BOIL- 
ING" FISH. 

Notice  in  which  ways  the  fish  is  toughest,  and  in 
which  it  is  tender,  but  keeps  its  shape.  What  is  the 
advantage  of  the  cheesecloth  ?  Formulate  a  rule  for  so- 
called  "boiled"  fish. 

1.  Place  a  small  piece  of  fish  (haddock  or  halibut  cut  in 
inch  cubes)  in  a  cup  of  boiling  water,  and  boil  rapidly 
for  ten  minutes. 

2.  Place  a  second  piece  of  fish  in  a  cup  of  boiling  water, 
and  simmer  for  ten  minutes. 

3.  Repeat  (2),  but  first  wrap  the  fish  in  cheesecloth. 

4.  Repeat  (2),  but  before  putting  in  the  fish  add  three- 
quarters  of  a  teaspoon  of  vinegar  or  lemon  and  quar- 
ter of  a  teaspoon  of  salt. 

Serve  half  of  the  fish  with  egg  sauce.  This  is  a  medium 
white  sauce  made  with  water  as  the  liquid,  twice  the  usual 
amount  of  butter,  and  hard-cooked  egg,  either  sliced  or 
chopped.  The  sauce  without  the  egg  is  known  as  drawn 
butter. 

Scallop  the  rest  of  the  fish.  Soft  bread  crumbs  may  be 
added  to  the  fish  to  increase  the  amount.  Serve  with 
stewed  tomato. 

FISH 

The  composition  of  fish  is  not  unlike  that  of  meat.  In 
general,  it  is  considered  to  be  a  somewhat  lighter  and  less 


204 


FOOD   STUDY 


USDepartment  of  Agriculture 

Office  </ ExpermMt  Station. 

A.C.True.  Director 


Prepared  by 

arLANGWORTHY 

Gpert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigators 


COMPOSmON  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


HEDDD 

Prater, 

COD 

Lean  Fish 


Fat          CvboKydratw 


uO.     VALUE; 

ater:82.6   W~ 

325  CALORCS  PER  POUND 

FVotein.-15.8 


mrm 


•  Fuel  Value 
£  Sain.  Equals 
1006  CaicJries 

SALT  COD 


FUEL 

B    I  Waten  53. 

4-10  CALORCS  PER  POUND 

R-otein.-2l 


OYSTER 


1:1.2 

SMOKED  HERRING 


Fat:1 
Ash-.1 


FUEL    VALUE- 


FUEL    VALUE. 

Hi          B 

1355  CALORIES  PER  POUND         6^5  CALORIES  PER  POUND     \/^~Oy 


COMPOSITION  OF  FISH  AND  OYSTERS 


FISH 


205 


nourishing  food  than  meat.     Here  is  a  comparison  of  the 
composition  of  two  typical  fish  with  beef. 


ROUND  BEEF 
very  lean 

COD  STEAKS 
edible  portion 

Protein   

22.6 

18.7 

Fat 

2  8 

05 

Ash    

1.3 

1  2 

Water 

736 

797 

ROUND  BEEP 

all  analyses 

MACKEREL 
edible  portion 

Protein   

20.9 

18.7 

Fat     

10.6 

7.1 

Ash     

1  i 

1.2 

Water     

67.8 

73.4 

As  fish  contain  less  extractives  and  rather  less  protein  also, 
it  can  well  be  substituted  for  meat  in  the  dietaries  of 
people  who  take  little  exercise. 

Fish  may  be  divided  into  groups  according  to  the  amount 
of  fat  the  flesh  contains,  cod  and  whitefish  being  examples 
of  lean  fish,  while  salmon,  mackerel,  and  bluefish  are  oily. 

Fish  spoils  so  readily  that  it  is  even  more  important  to 
know  how  to  select  it  than  how  to  select  meat.  It  is  true 
that  the  flavor  of  fish  is  much  better  if  it  can  be  used  as 
soon  as  caught.  Since  this  is  not  possible  with  fish  sold  in 
market,  such  fish  should  be  killed  as  soon  as  caught,  and 
kept  on  ice.  Notice  that,  in  the  market,  fish  exposed  for 
sale  is  sprinkled  with  chopped  ice.  To  be  good,  the  flesh 
must  be  firm,  not  soft  and  flabby,  and  eyes  and  gills  must 
be  bright.  With  practice,  the  sense  of  smell  is  a  great 
aid  in  determining  freshness. 


206  FOOD   STUDY 

The  amount  of  waste  in  head,  bones,  and  skin  is  large, 
if  fish  are  bought  whole.  Hutchison  estimates  that  this 
may  amount  to  seventy  per  cent  as  purchased,  and  even 
be  as  much  as  thirty-five  per  cent  in  fish  as  sent  to  the 
table.  These  facts  must  be  taken  into  account  in  deter- 
mining the  actual  cost  of  fish,  as  well  as  the  real  cost  of 
canned  fish  free  from  waste.  As  usual  with  foods,  the 
cost  is  no  measure  of  the  food  value  of  the  special  kinds  of 
fish  bought.  The  fat  fish  are  much  more  nutritious  than 
lean  fish  on  account  of  the  fat  present. 

If  fish  have  been  cleaned  at  market,  they  should  still  be 
wiped  inside  and  out  with  a  damp  cloth.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  of  fish  after  it  has  been  bought.  It  should  be 
kept  cold,  on  ice  if  possible,  but,  unless  the  flesh  is  pro- 
tected by  skin,  not  directly  on  the  ice  itself.  It  must  not 
stand  long  before  being  cooked. 

The  distinctive  taste  of  fish  is  due  partly  to  the  fat 
present.  Since  the  flavor — except  in  very  oily  varieties — 
is  never  strong,  even  greater  care  should  be  taken  in  cook- 
ing to  preserve  the  extractives  in  fish  than  in  meat.  At 
least  five  per  cent  of  the  solid  matter  in  fish  may  be  lost  in 
boiling.  Acid,  lemon  juice,  or  vinegar,  is  often  added  to 
the  water  used  in  boiling  fish  in  order  to  help  coagulate  the 
protein,  and  so  keep  the  flesh  white  and  firm. 

In  general,  fish  is  about  as  digestible  as  meat,  the  kinds 
containing  less  fat  digesting  with  greater  ease  than  the 
more  oily  varieties.  Salt,  smoked,  and  pickled  fish  are 
all  more  difficult  of  digestion  than  fresh  fish. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  85.    "Fish  as 

Food." 

Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bulletin  No.  133.     "The  Preparation  of 
Cod  and  other  Salt  Fish  for  Market." 


OYSTER  STEW  —  FISH  CHOWDER  207 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  list  of  fish  which  would  be  classed  as  rich  and  oily,  and 
of  those  which  could  be  called  dry.    Which  class  usually  has  dark 
flesh  ?    Which  are  considered  more  easily  digested  ? 

2.  Why  is  pork  or  butter  usually  added  in  baking  fish,  but  not  in 
baking  meat  ? 

3.  Find  out  what  fish  are  commonly  sold  in  your  home  market. 
Make  a  table  showing  season  and  price. 

4.  Give  ways  suitable  for  cooking  different  kinds  of  fish. 

5.  In  boiling  a  large  piece  of  fish,  why  would  it  be  convenient  to 
put  the  fish  on  a  plate  or  rack,  and  wrap  up  together?    Would 
strips  of  cheese  cloth  placed  across  under  a  fish  to  be  baked  help  in 
lifting  it  when  done  ? 

6.  How  should  a  fish  be  cleaned?    Scaled?    Skinned? 

7.  Consult  cook  books  for  sauces  and  garnishes  suitable  to  serve 
with  fish. 

8.  Suggest  combinations  of  vegetables  which  are  good  with  fish. 

9.  Suggest  ways  of  serving  left-over  fish. 


XLII 

OYSTER  STEW  — FISH  CHOWDER 

A.  Class  Experiment.    COOKING  OYSTEKS. 

Put  an  oyster  in  water  and  heat  slowly  to  boiling.  Ob- 
serve all  the  changes  which  take  place,  and  the  tempera- 
tures which  cause  the  changes.  When  are  oysters  done  ? 
What  is  the  best  temperature  to  use  in  cooking? 

B.  PREPARE  OYSTER  STEW. 

Clean  oysters  by  pouring  a  little  cold  water  over  them  in 
a  strainer.  Add  this  water  to  the  oyster  liquor  and  strain 
through  cheesecloth  to  remove  any  sand  present.  Feel 
each  oyster  to  be  sure  no  bits  of  shell  remain.  Season  hot 


208  FOOD   STUDY 

milk  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  then  add  oyster  liquor 
and  oysters.  How  long  will  you  cook  it  after  the  oysters 
are  added?  Allow  about  equal  amounts  of  milk  and 
oysters ;  and  at  least  half  a  tablespoon  of  butter  to  each 
cup  of  milk.  If  thick  stew  is  preferred,  rolled  crackers  are 
sometimes  cooked  in  the  milk,  or  the  whole  thickened  with 
flour. 

C.    PREPARE  FISH  CHOWDER. 

4  Ib.  cod  or  haddock  1  tbsp.  salt 

6  c.  potatoes  cut  in  j  inch  slices  or  £  tsp.  pepper 

4  c.  potatoes  cut  in  f  inch  cubes  3  tbsp.  butter 

1  sliced  onion  4  c.  scalded  milk 

1|  inch  cube  fat  salt  pork  8  common  crackers 

Order  the  fish  skinned,  but  head  and  tail  left  on.  Cut  off 
head  and  tail  and  remove  fish  from  backbone.  Cut  fish 
in  two-inch  pieces  and  set  aside.  Put  head,  tail,  and  back- 
bone broken  in  pieces,  in  stewpan;  add  two  cups  cold 
water  and  bring  slowly  to  boiling  point;  cook  twenty 
minutes.  Cut  salt  pork  in  small  pieces  and  try  out,  add 
onion,  and  fry  five  minutes ;  strain  into  stewpan.  Parboil 
potatoes  five  minutes  in  boiling  water  to  cover ;  drain,  and 
add  potatoes  to  fat ;  then  add  two  cups  boiling  water  and 
cook  five  minutes.  Add  liquor  drained  from  bones,  then 
add  the  fish;  cover,  and  simmer  ten  minutes.  Add 
milk,  salt,  pepper,  butter,  and  crackers  split  and  soaked 
in  enough  cold  milk  to  moisten.  Pilot  bread  is  sometimes 
used  in  place  of  common  crackers. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."     By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

OYSTERS 

Oysters,  the  United  States  Deputy  Commissioner  of 
Fisheries  tells  us,  are  not  only  the  most  extensively  eaten 


OYSTERS  209 

of  all  shellfish,  but  are  also,  with  a  single  exception,  the 
most  valuable  economically  of  all  aquatic  animals.  The 
United  States  furnishes  eighty-eight  per  cent  of  the  total 
quantity  of  oysters  produced,  and  has  at  least  150,000 
men  and  women  engaged  in  the  industry.  While  all  of 
the  coast  states  but  one  deal  in  oysters,  in  fifteen  of  them 
this  is  the  chief  fishery  product.  However,  the  greatest 
number  of  oysters  in  this  country  come  from  Long  Island 
Sound,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Washington.  France  produces  the  crop  next  largest 
to  the  United  States.  Japan  and  China  are  also  oyster 
producing  countries. 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  a  demand  there  must  be  for  oysters. 
This  is  no  doubt  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  easily 
digested,  but  it  is  probably  also  because  they  can  be  used 
to  furnish  considerable  variety  to  the  diet,  since  they  lend 
themselves  to  so  many  ways  of  preparation.  They  are 
almost  universally  used,  appearing  on  the  menus  of  the 
most  exclusive  as  well  as  the  cheapest  restaurants. 

Langworthy  gives  the  following  composition  for  oysters : 

Water 88.3  per  cent 

Nitrogenous  substances 6.1  per  cent 

Fat 1.4  per  cent 

Carbohydrates 3.3  per  cent 

Salts 1.9  per  cent 

The  total  solids  are  about  equal  in  amount  to  those  of 
milk,  but  a  quart  of  shucked  oysters  costs  from  four  to  five 
times  as  much  as  a  quart  of  milk.  Oysters,  like  milk,  are 
bulky  for  the  amount  of  nourishment  which  they  contain. 
The  nitrogen  present  is  probably  not  all  in  the  form  of  pro- 
tein ;  the  carbohydrate  is  largely  the  glycogen  stored  in  the 
liver  of  the  animal.  Milk  and  oysters  are  the  two  animal 
foods  which  are  exceptional  in  furnishing  large  amounts 


210  FOOD   STUDY 

of  carbohydrate,  although  not  in  the  same  form.  Eaten 
raw,  oysters  are  an  unusually  digestible  food ;  even  cooked, 
they  are  still  easily  digested,  although  they  are  less  so 
when  fried  than  when  cooked  in  any  other  way. 

Long  ago  the  demand  for  oysters  outran  the  natural 
supply  and  oyster  culture  became  an  industry.  Italy 
began  their  cultivation  about  a  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  within  the  last  century  even  those 
places  where  oysters  were  naturally  most  abundant  have 
been  forced  to  cultivate  them.  In  order  to  understand 
what  oyster  farming  means  one  must  know  something  of 
the  habits  of  the  oyster.  An  oyster  produces  an  incredible 
number  of  eggs,  apparently  to  compensate  for  the  fact 
that  in  natural  life  the  percentage  of  those  that  will  find 
suitable  conditions  for  development  is  very  small.  Oyster 
farming  consists  in  the  preservation  of  as  many  of  these 
eggs  as  possible.  The  newly-born  young  is  not  more  than 
one  one-hundred-and-fiftieth  of  an  inch  long,  nearly  trans- 
parent, has  no  shell,  and  swims  freely.  By  the  time  it  is 
large  enough  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye  it  can  no  longer 
move  around.  To  survive,  during  the  swimming  period  it 
must  not  only  escape  being  eaten  by  adult  oysters,  fish, 
and  other  shellfish,  but  it  must  find  a  suitable  place  in 
which  to  develop.  If  it  sinks  on  a  muddy,  soft  sandy,  or 
slimy  bottom  it  cannot  live.  If,  however,  it  attaches 
itself  to  clean  shells  it  has  a  chance  to  survive.  But  the 
oyster  has  many  enemies  against  which  even  the  hard 
shell  that  surrounds  it  does  not  afford  perfect  protection. 
Certain  mollusks  drill  minute  holes  through  the  shell  and 
so  get  at  the  oyster's  body,  starfish  may  force  the  shell 
open  and  devour  the  contents,  or  it  may  be  attacked  by 
certain  kinds  of  fish  with  jaws  powerful  enough  to  crush 
the  shells ;  or  barnacles,  sponges,  or  mussels  may  grow  so 
thickly  on  the  shells  as  to  cut  off  food  and  oxygen.  Oyster 


OYSTERS  211 

culture  consists  mainly  in  providing  suitable  beds  of  shells 
for  the  young  oysters  and  in  protecting  them  from  as 
many  of  their  enemies  as  possible.  Palisades  are  some- 
times erected  around  the  beds  to  keep  off  the  large  fish. 

When  ready  for  market,  the  oysters  are  dredged,  freed 
from  dirt  and  attached  shells,  and  sorted  according  to  size. 
Three  sizes  are  usually  recognized.  The  smallest,  called 
"half  shells",  are  usually  eaten  raw,  the  middle-sized, 
sometimes  called  "culls",  are  for  general  use,  while  the 
largest  or  "box"  oysters  are  selected  for  frying.  The 
difference  in  size  is  mainly  a  question  of  age,  for,  while 
there  are  many  varieties  of  oysters,  there  is  not  much  vari- 
ation in  size  between  the  varieties.  One  peculiarity  of 
the  oyster  is  that  it  remains  just  as  tender  when  old  as  it 
was  when  young.  The  fact  that  it  takes  no  exercise  may 
explain  this.  The  names  Blue  Point,  Rockaway,  and 
the  like,  which  used  to  indicate  the  locality  from  which 
the  oyster  came,  now  usually  mean  no  more  than  size. 
For  example,  many  small  oysters  are  called  Blue  Points. 

Oysters  stand  shipping  well.  If  left  in  the  shell,  kept 
cool,  and  sprinkled  occasionally  with  brackish  water,  they 
will  live  for  weeks  without  any  deterioration.  Even 
when  "shucked",  if  kept  cool,  they  remain  edible  for  eight 
to  ten  days,  but  they  keep  best  if  removed  from  the  oyster 
liquor.  Shucked  oysters  are  usually  washed  carefully  in  a 
number  of  waters,  and  packed  in  air-tight  receptacles  sur- 
rounded by  ice.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  them  be- 
come frozen.  Formerly,  they  were  shipped  floated  in  a 
tub  with  a  cake  of  ice.  The  objections  to  this  practice 
were  twofold.  The  ice  often  had  to  be  replaced  during 
the  shipping,  with  the  consequent  danger  of  infection. 
Secondly,  oysters  lose  salts  and  much  flavor  if  soaked  in 
fresh  water,  although  they  gain  in  size  from  the  absorp- 
tion of  water.  Consequently  many  states  require  the 


212  FOOD    STUDY 

other  method  of  shipment  and  specify  that  the  oysters 
sold  shall  not  contain  more  than  ninety  per  cent  water. 
Because  they  take  up  fresh  water,  oysters  are  sometimes 
"fattened"  by  placing  them  in  the  fresh  water  at  the 
mouth  of  rivers.  It  is  most  necessary  that  such  beds  shall 
not  be  in  water  contaminated  by  sewage,  lest  the  raw 
oyster  become  a  carrier  of  typhoid  germs,  but,  even  at 
best,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  allowing  the  practice. 

The  notion  that  oysters  cannot  be  eaten  during  the 
months  which  contain  no  "r"  in  their  names,  May,  June, 
July,  and  August,  has  no  real  foundation  except  that  they 
are  more  liable  to  be  contaminated  by  the  bacteria  in  the 
water  when  it  is  warm.  Oysters  are  not  good  when  they 
are  spawning,  but  this  requires  only  from  three  to  four 
weeks  and  takes  place  in  different  species  at  different 
seasons.  Of  course,  if  not  properly  kept  cool,  oysters 
spoil  more  quickly  in  hot  than  in  cold  weather. 

Oysters  occasionally  appear  unusually  green.  This  is 
sometimes  due  merely  to  certain  seaweeds  or  diatoms  on 
which  they  have  been  feeding,  and  does  not  in  any  way 
impair  the  oyster  as  an  edible  product.  Only  rarely  is  it 
due  to  copper,  and  probably  never  in  amounts  sufficient  to 
prove  injurious. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  85.     "Fish  as 

Food." 
National   Geographical   Magazine,   Vol.   24    (1913),  pp.  257-281. 

SMITH.     "Oysters;   the  World's  Most  Valuable  Water  Crop." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  cost  of  oyster  stew  and  a  cream  vegetable  soup. 

2.  Compare  the  cost  and  taste  of  fish  chowder  made  at  home  with  a 
canned  chowder  of  good  brand. 

3.  Should  the  crabs  frequently  found  in  oysters  be  used  ? 


REVIEW  LESSON  213 

4.  Are  oysters  which  are  greenish  good  to  eat  ? 

5.  In  what  months  are  oysters  not  used,  and  why  ? 

6.  If  fresh  lobsters  and  clams  are  obtainable  in  your  market, 
compare  the  cost  of  these  with  oysters.    If  not,  compare  the  cost  of 
canned  lobsters  and  clams. 

7.  Are  shellfish  expensive  forms  of  nutriment  ? 


XLIII 

REVIEW   LESSON 

DINNER 

TOMATO  SOUP 

JELLIED  PRUNES 

PREPARE  AND  SERVE  A  DINNER. 
Suggested  menu : 

Soup  —  Tomato. 

Meat  —  Baked  fish,  with  any  suitable  sauce. 

Vegetables  —  Buttered  beets. 

Stuffed  potatoes. 

Salad  —  Lettuce  with  French  dressing. 
Dessert  —  Jellied  prunes. 

TOMATO  SOUP. 

Cook  a  can  of  tomatoes  with  a  pint  of  water,  a  tablespoon 
of  chopped  onion,  and  three  or  four  cloves,  until  the  toma- 
toes are  soft.  Strain  and  thicken.  Season  to  taste. 

JELLIED  PRUNES. 

|  lb.  prunes  \  box  gelatine  or 

2  c.  cold  water  2|  tbsp.  granulated  gelatine 

Boiling  water  1  c.  sugar 

\  c.  cold  water  i  c.  lemon  juice. 


214  FOOD   STUDY 

Pick  over,  wash,  and  soak  prunes  for  several  hours  in 
two  cups  of  cold  water ;  cook  in  same  water  until  soft ; 
remove  prunes;  stone,  and  cut  in  quarters.  To  prune 
water  add  enough  boiling  water  to  make  two  cups.  Soak 
gelatine  in  half  cup  cold  water,  dissolve  in  hot  liquid,  add 
sugar,  lemon  juice,  then  strain,  add  prunes,  mold,  and 
chill.  Stir  twice  while  cooling  to  prevent  prunes  from 
settling.  Serve  with  sugar  and  cream. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."  By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

THE  DINING  ROOM 

The  American  woman  has  been  accused  in  the  past  of 
great  lack  of  taste  in  the  furnishing  and  decoration  of  her 
house,  although  being  second  only  to  the  French  woman 
in  her  knowledge  of  how  to  dress.  Fortunately,  however, 
matters  have  been  improving  greatly  in  this  respect,  per- 
haps because  the  woman  is  beginning  to  understand  that, 
while  fashion  complicates  the  problem,  there  really  are 
fundamental  laws  to-  guide  her.  Honesty,  simplicity,  and 
use  are  the  touchstones,  and  it  is  amusing  that  it  is  the 
artists,  who  have  always  been  considered  impractical  in 
matters  of  everyday  life,  who  are  insisting  that  usefulness 
is  the  first  test. 

First,  a  thing  should  look  like  the  thing  it  really  is 
and  not  like  something  else.  A  salt  shaker  should  look 
like  a  salt  shaker  and  not  be  an  owl  with  holes  in  its 
head.  A  pillow  on  a  couch  should  be  made  to  be  a 
pillow,  not  ruffled  or  beaded,  nor  of  some  material  which 
would  either  be  easily  spoiled  or  uncomfortable  to  use. 
Suitability,  also,  is  being  considered.  The  era  of  hang- 
ing gilded  rolling  pins  with  hooks  across  them  for  key 
holders,  or  gilded  toasters  for  magazine  racks  has  gone 


THE  DINING  ROOM  215 

by.  But  man  is  still  under  the  influence  of  the  notion 
that  we  must  have  multitudes  of  things  around  us.  Let 
us  rather  test  every  object  in  a  room  and  decide  if  it  is 
really  useful  or  if  it  is  really  beautiful,  and  discard  the  rest. 
Let  each  object  be  as  beautiful  as  possible.  The  use  of 
ornament  is  shown  everywhere  about  us,  but  much  of  the 
so-called  ornament  is  meaningless,  interferes  with  use,  or 
greatly  increases  work.  This  is  unsuit ability. 

With  'this  in  mind,  it  is  easy  to  formulate  the  needs  of 
the  dining  room.  First,  it  must  be  a  place  not  only  really 
clean,  but  one  that  allows  no  suspicion  in  the  matter.  A 
well-lighted  room  with  light  colors  is  required  rather 
than  a  dark  one  which  might  conceal  dirt.  Few  objects 
should  be  around.  Too  many  suggest  subconsciously  to 
the  mind  that  since  it  is  much  work  to  dust,  dust  has  prob- 
ably been  allowed  to  accumulate.  The  air  must  be  fresh ; 
no  stale  odors  of  food  are  welcome.  Therefore,  heavy 
materials  to  which  odors  cling  are  unsuitable  for  draperies 
or  upholstering.  Carpets  are  excluded,  and  rugs  are  ad- 
mitted only  because  they  deaden  noise.  Moreover,  as 
one  likes  to  be  sure  nothing  has  been  spilled  on  the  chair, 
evidently  leather  or  cane  seating  is  to  be  chosen  instead  of 
stuffed  furniture.  The  height  of  table  and  chairs  should 
be  carefully  adjusted  for  comfort.  Chairs  that  are  so 
high  that  the  average  person  cannot  touch  the  floor  while 
sitting  in  them  are  disagreeable.  Again,  children  often 
are  seated  at  table  so  that  their  chins  barely  appear,  or 
they  are  placed  so  high  that  they  are  sitting  almost  on  a 
level  with  the  table  itself,  and  are  reproved  for  spilling. 

Since  undoubtedly  our  state  of  mind  affects  our  diges- 
tions, colors  must  be  restful  and  harmonious,  and  the  room 
must  be  light  and  cheerful.  On  the  sideboard  or  table 
may  be  placed  utensils  which  are  appropriate  and  beauti- 
ful. But  remember  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  have 


216 


FOOD   STUDY 


too  few  articles  around,  for  things  accumulate  almost 
faster  than  they  can  be  cared  for;  and  that  it  is,  con- 
sequently, very,  very  easy  to  have  too  many. 

REFERENCES 

Pictures  and  articles  on  Dining  Rooms  in  such  magazines  as  "The 
House  Beautiful,"  or  hi  books  on  House  Furnishing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Calculate  the  cost  per  person  of  the  dinner  served  and  compare 
it  with  the  following  dinner : 

Main  course  —  Fish  chowder. 

Bread  and  butter. 
Dessert  —  German  toast  with  a  pudding  sauce. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  dishes,  glass,  silver,  linen,  and  the  like,  which  you 
would  consider  a  moderate  equipment  for  a  dining  room,  and  find 
out  about  what  the  cost  would  be. 

3.  Describe  a  dining  room  which  you  consider  suitably  furnished. 

4.  How  would  you  rank  a  dining  room,  as  a  public,  semi-public,  or 
private  room?    What  influence  should  this  have  on  the  choice  of 
pictures  for  the  room  ? 

XLIV 


POP-OVERS 

A.    PREPARE  POP-OVERS. 

Use  one-fourth  of  the  following  proportions : 


LIQUID 
(Milk) 

FLOUR 
(Bread  flour 
sifted) 

EGO 

FAT 
(Butter) 

SALT 

1  C. 

1  C. 

1 

1  tsp. 

Jtsp. 

FLOUR  MIXTURES  217 

Mix  as  follows: 

1.  Beat  white  and  yolk  separately.     Add  the  milk  to 
the  beaten  yolk  and  add  to  the  flour  and  salt.     Stir 
in  the  melted  butter  and  finally  fold  in  the  beaten 
white. 

2.  Add  the  milk  to  the  flour  and  salt.     Add  unbeaten 
egg  and  melted  butter  and  beat  with  a  Dover  egg 
beater  until  there  are  no  lumps. 

Pour  each  pop-over  batter  into  hot,  buttered,  earthen 
molds  or  iron  muffin  pans,  but  do  not  fill  molds  more  than 
quarter  full.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  l  (482°  F.)  until  the 
pop-overs  are  puffed  and  beginning  to  brown,  then  reduce 
the  heat  and  finish  baking.  Allow  thirty  to  thirty-five 
minutes  for  the  whole  baking.  Compare  results. 

B.  Class  Experiments.  1.  Fill  a  cup  with  unsifted 
flour.  Sift  the  flour  and  refill  the  cup,  being 
careful  not  to  pack  the  flour.  Recipes  always 
call  for  flour  measured  after  one  sifting.  Why  ? 
2.  Drop  a  teaspoon  of  unbeaten  white  of  egg  into 
hot  fat.  What  immediately  happens  to  the 
water  in  the  white  of  egg?  What  makes  pop- 
overs  pop  ?  Why  is  so  hot  an  oven  used  ? 

FLOUR  MIXTURES 

Cream  soup  and  white  sauce  are  made  with  compara- 
tively little  flour  for  the  liquid  used,  and  without  the  use 
of  eggs.  Beginning  with  pop-overs  come  a  series  of  thick- 
ened mixtures,  usually  with  more  or  less  egg.  Of  these 
the  more  liquid  are  termed  batters.  A  mixture  thin 

aTest  the  heat  of  the  oven  at  482°  F.  with  your  hand.  An 
"  educated  "  hand  is  of  the  greatest  help  when  trying  to  bake  with- 
out a  thermometer.  Also  test  by  putting  a  piece  of  white  paper 
in  the  oven  for  five  minutes. 


218  FOOD   STUDY 

enough  to  pour  is  called  a  "pour-batter";  it  is  about  as 
thick  as  thin  cream.  Then  comes  a  "drop-batter", 
thicker  than  a  pour -batter  but  still  liquid  enough  to  drop 
from  a  spoon,  "breaking"  when  it  is  poured.  It  has 
the  consistency  of  thick  cream.  Thicker  than  this  is 
"  soft  dough" ;  then,  still  thicker,  is  "  dough."  Obviously 
pop-overs  are  a  pour-batter ;  so  are  griddle-cakes.  Muffins 
are  drop-batter,  baking-powder  biscuits  are  soft  dough,  and 
bread  is  dough.  Cookies  and  pastry  are  still  stiffer  mix- 
tures. But  none  of  these  terms  are  exact,  because  the 
proportions  of  flour  and  liquid  in  any  one  may  vary  a  good 
deal.  Also,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  eggs  act  as  a  liquid 
until  they  are  cooked,  and  that  fat  is  liquid  while  it  is 
melted.  All  these  things,  therefore,  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  Then,  one  flour  differs  from  another  in  its 
gluten  content,  so,  therefore,  in  the  amount  of  liquid  it 
can  absorb.  But  in  spite  of  all  this,  quite  accurate  results 
can  be  obtained  with  definite  proportions,  until  one  comes 
to  a  mixture  like  bread  which  must  be  handled. 

In  considering  the  whole  question  of  proportions,  think 
of  the  liquid  as  fixed  in  amount,  one  cup,  and  then  the 
proportion  of  flour  used  with  it.  In  pop-overs  equal 
amounts  are  used,  one  cup  of  each.  Therefore,  pop-over 
batter  is  said  to  be  1:1,  —  one  cup  of  liquid  to  one  cup 
of  flour.  As  griddle-cakes,  fritter-batter,  muffins,  and 
bread  vary  mainly  in  the  amount  of  flour  used,  this  is  an 
easy  way  to  remember  proportions.  Cake  ordinarily 
contains  so  much  fat  or  so  many  eggs  that  these  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  counting  liquid. 

The  method  of  mixing  depends  upon  the  leavening  agent 
and  the  result  to  be  accomplished.  If  the  leavening  is 
steam,  as  in  pop-overs,  beating  in  air  is  evidently  unneces- 
sary. Therefore  the  separate  beating  of  the  egg,  folding  in 
the  white,  gives  no  better  pop-overs  than  are  obtained  by 


FLOUR  MIXTURES  219 

the  shorter  method.  Beating  the  flour  with  the  liquid 
develops  the  gluten  in  it,  which  is  necessary  to  retain  the 
steam  which  expands  and  so  makes  the  pop-overs  hollow. 
Notice  in  each  mixture  exactly  how  you  combine  the  in- 
gredients and  see  the  reasons  in  every  case. 

Baking  is  much  easier  -if  a  thermometer  can  be  used  in 
the  oven,  because  then  the  temperature  can  readily  be 
measured  and  not  guessed  at.  Many  home  ovens  can 
quite  easily  have  a  hole  bored,  so  that  a  thermometer  can 
be  inserted.  The  result  is  more  accurate  than  the  results 
obtained  from  oven  thermometers.  With  gas  ovens,  it  is 
possible  to  tell  with  a  little  practice  how  hot  a  given  oven 
is  by  the  length  of  time  the  gas  has  been  lighted  and  the 
degree  to  which  it  is  turned  on.  Many  ovens  bake  un- 
evenly. This  is  especially  liable  to  be  true  of  small  ovens. 
In  these,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  pans  too  near  the 
sides.  It  is  impossible  to  fill  such  an  oven  too  full  and 
get  good  results.  A  pan  of  water  will  help  cool  an  oven ; 
an  asbestos  mat  placed  under  a  pan  will  keep  the  bottom 
from  baking  as  fast ;  paper  put  over  the  top  will  keep  the 
top  from  browning  as  rapidly.  But  all  these  ought  to  be 
unnecessary  with  a  good  oven  and  sufficient  skill  in  baking. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  pour-batter  an  appropriate  name  for  batters  of  the  type  of 
pop-overs  ? 

2.  Look  up  a  recipe  for  cream  puffs.     Cream  cakes.     Eclairs. 
How  do  these  compare  in  proportions  with  the  pop-over  recipe  ? 

3.  If  you  mixed  cream  puffs  as  pop-overs  and  attempted  to  bake 
them  on  a  flat  surface  what  would  happen  ?    Account,  then,  for  the 
partial  cooking  of  the  flour  during  the  mixing. 

4.  Compare  the  proportions  of  flour  to  liquid  in  cream  soups, 
white  sauces,  and  pop-overs.    Also  with  the  amount  of  flour  you 
would  have  to  substitute  for  cornstarch  to  make  a  mold.     Compare 
the  textures  when  cooked. 


220  FOOD   STUDY 

XLV 
APPLE   FRITTERS 

A.  Class  Experiments.     THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  LEAVEN- 

ING. 

1.  Tie  a  piece  "of  rubber  sheeting  over  the  top 
of    a  test    tube,  cool    the  tube,  then  heat  it 
slightly.     Notice   the   effects    on    the    rubber. 
What  effect  has  heat  and  cold  upon  the  volume 
of  the  air  in  the  tube  ? 

2.  How  is  the  gas  held  in  the  dough  ? 

Mix  one  teaspoon  of  flour  with  an  equal  amount 
of  water.  Repeat,  using  cornstarch  instead  of 
flour.  Notice  the  difference  in  the  result.  To 
explain :  mix  \  c.  flour  with  water  (a  teaspoon 
at  a  time)  to  make  a  very  stiff  dough.  Wash,  by 
kneading  it  gently  in  a  bowl  of  cold  water  until 
the  part  left,  the  gluten,  no  longer  gives  a  blue 
color  with  iodine.  (What  has  been  washed  out  ?) 

a.  Reserve  a  pinch  of  the  gluten,  divide  the 
rest  into  two  balls.     Bake  one  in  a  hot 
oven,  the  other  in  a  slow  oven.     Explain 
difference  in  results. 

b.  With    the    piece    reserved,   determine    if 
gluten  is  protein. 

B.  APPLE  FRITTERS. 

Prepare  a  pop-over  batter,  using  J  c.  liquid.  Pare 
and  core  an  apple  and  cut  crossways  into  slices.  Dip  a 
slice  into  the  batter.  Is  it  thick  enough  to  make  a  cover 
for  the  apple?  Add  enough  flour  to  make  a  "cover- 
batter."  Record  proportions  one  would  need  for  a  cup  of 
liquid.  Fry  in  deep  fat  and  serve  with  syrup 


LEAVENING,    ,    _    .    ,  22J. 

LEAVENING 

The  term  leavening  means  "making  lighter."  Bread 
is  leavened  and,  instead  of  being  a  solid,  heavy  mass, 
is  spongy,  light,  and  porous.  The  process  is  supposed 
to  improve  not  only  the  flavor  but  the  digestibility  of  the 
mass. 

The  principle  of  all  leavening  is  the  expansion  by  heat  of 
some  gas  which  is  thoroughly  mixed  through  the  batter  or 
dough.  In  cooking,  there  are  three  agents  which  are  com- 
monly used  in  leavening  doughs.  The  first  of  these  is 
water  vapor  or  steam.  This,  as  in  the  pop-overs,  is  manu- 
factured from  the  water  present  in  the  batter  by  the  heat 
of  the  oven.  Then  further  heat  expands  the  steam  still 
more.  At  the  same  time  the  heat  hardens  the  expanded 
gluten,  so  that  after  a  while  no  further  stretching  is  pos- 
sible. This  explains  why  muffins  and  cake  rise  in  the 
oven  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  baking. 

The  second  agent  is  air.  This  is  mixed  in  a  batter  in 
two  ways,  —  it  may  be  entangled  in  the  batter  itself  by 
beating  rapidly,  or  it  may  be  beaten  into  egg  and  then 
folded  into  the  batter.  Even  snow  may  be  folded  in  like 
egg  and  introduce  some  air  into  the  mixture.  When  the 
batter  full  of  tiny  bubbles  of  air  is  heated,  this  air  expands 
and,  stretching  the  gluten  by  which  it  is  held,  it  makes 
larger  holes,  thus  leavening  all  the  mass  and  making  it 
rise. 

Carbon  dioxide  is  the  third  agent.  This  may  be 
forced  into  the  dough,  a  process,  however,  which  is  never 
used  at  home  and  rarely  elsewhere.  Carbon  dioxide  is, 
instead,  manufactured  in  the  dough  itself.  When  yeast  is 
put  into  bread,  one  is  really  starting  a  plant  to  grow.  The 
plant  feeds  mainly  on  sugar.  If  cane  sugar  is  present,  it 
turns  it  first  into  glucose  and  fructose  sugars  and  then 


222  FOOD   STUDY 

breaks  them  up  into  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol.  The 
heat  of  the  oven  acts  on  carbon  dioxide  exactly  as  it  does 
on  water  vapor  or  steam,  expanding  it  into  larger  bubbles. 
As  alcohol  is  more  easily  turned  into  vapor  than  is  water, 
it  becomes  a  gas  and,  expanding,  helps  in  the  leavening 
process. 

The  other  method  of  introducing  carbon  dioxide  into 
doughs  and  batters  will  be  shown  in  the  next  lesson. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  effect  has  heat  on  gluten? 

2.  What  other  proteins  are  hardened  by  heat  ? 

3.  After  pop-overs   are  thoroughly  baked,  as  they  cool,   what 
becomes  of  the  steam  ?    Why  are  they  better  eaten  hot  ?    Compare 
them  to  baked  potatoes  in  this  respect. 

4.  Why  does  an  insufficiently  cooked  pop-over  fall,  when  it  is 
taken  out  of  the  oven  ? 

5.  Calculate  the  cost  of  pop-overs.    How  do  they  compare  with  the 
cost  of  the  bread  that  they  would  replace  in  a  meal  ? 


XLVI 
SOUR   MILK   GRIDDLECAKES 

Class  Experiments.    SODA  AS  A  LEAVENING  AGENT. 

1.  To  find  out  why  soda  makes  cakes  light. 

Add  a  teaspoon  of  vinegar  to  a  pinch  of  soda  in  a 
test  tube.  Tip  the  tube  and  hold  the  mouth 
of  this  test  tube  just  above  another  containing  a 
teaspoon  of  lime  water.  After  a  moment,  cover 
the  mouth  of  the  lime-water  tube  and  shake  it. 
What  is  present  ?  What  caused  the  bubbles  in 
the  first  tube? 


SOUR  MILK  GRIDDLECAKES  223 

2.  What  kind  of  substances  must  be  put  with  soda 
to  produce  this  gas  ? 

a.  Dip  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  into  vine- 
gar and  note  the  effect  on  the  paper.     Hold 
it  in  the  fumes  of  ammonia,  an  alkaline  sub- 
stance, and  see  the  result. 

b.  Now   test   the   following   and   determine 
whether  they  are  acid,  alkaline,  or  neutral 
(neither  acid  nor  alkaline) : 

1  —  water. 

2  —  sour  milk. 

3  —  sweet  milk. 

4  —  molasses  and  water. 

5  —  cream  of  tartar  dissolved  in  hot  water. 

6  —  thin  starch  paste. 

7  —  soda  and  water. 

c.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  soda  and  water  into 
each  of  the  tubes.     Which  cause  effer- 
vescence ? 

3.  Will  bubbles  of  gas  go  on  forming  indefinitely  ? 
To  a  little  soda  and  water  add,   successively, 
small  amounts  of  vinegar.     Do  bubbles   con- 
tinue to  form?     Has  all  the  gas  in  the  soda 
been  set  free?     Has  soda  an  agreeable  taste? 
What  would  be  the  difficulty,  if  there  were  more 
soda  in  bread  or  cake  than  the  acid  present 
could  act  on? 

4.  How  much  soda  can  be  used  with  a  given  amount 
of  acid  ? 

Dissolve  a  teaspoon  of  soda  in  quarter  of  a  cup 
of  water  in  a  measuring  cup.  Then  dilute  half 
a  cup  of  thick  sour  milk  with  about  half  a  cup 
of  water.  Add,  slowly,  the  soda  solution  to  the 


224 


FOOD    STUDY 


sour  milk  until  it  is  neutral  to  both  red  and  blue 
litmus  paper. 

Calculate  the  amount  of  soda  to  use  with  one 
cup  of  sour  milk. 

B.    PREPARE  SOUR  MILK  GRIDDLECAKES 
Use  one-fourth  of  the  following  proportions : 


LIQUID 
(Thick,  sour  milk) 

FLOTJR 

EGO 

FAT 

(Melted  butter) 

SALT 

SODA 

1  C. 

1  to  H  c. 

1 

1  tbsp. 

1  tsp. 

? 

How  will  you  combine  the  ingredients?  Cook  by  drop- 
ping spoonfuls  of  the  batter  on  a  griddle  or  frying  pan, 
using  enough  fat  to  keep  the  cakes  from  sticking.  A 
soapstone  griddle  should  not  be  greased.  When  the  cake 
is  full  of  bubbles  and  the  under  side  is  brown,  turn  the 
cakes  over,  using  a  spatula  or  a  cake  turner,  and  brown 
the  other  side  also. 

SODA 

Soda  has  two  chemical  names :  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and 
acid  sodium  carbonate.  In  spite  of  the  latter  name,  soda 
is  alkaline  to  litmus  and  not  acid  in  any  of  its  properties. 
It  is  manufactured  from  common  salt  by  a  number  of 
different  processes. 

Our  grandmothers  used  saleratus  in  place  of  soda.  This 
is  bicarbonate  of  potash  and,  like  soda,  gives  off  carbon 
dioxide  when  it  is  combined  with  an  acid.  As  this  was 
originally  manufactured  it  was  not  finely  powdered,  but 
in  a  more  or  less  scaly  mass  which  could  by  no  means  have 
been  easily  sifted  with  the  flour  in  making  use  of  it.  In 
order,  then,  to  get  it  properly  mixed,  it  was  necessary  to 


SODA  225 

dissolve  it  in  the  liquid  used.  This  probably  accounts  for 
the  many  cooks  who  still  dissolve  the  soda  in  the  sour  milk 
used  with  it,  instead  of  sifting  it  with  the  flour.  This 
is,  obviously,  a  waste  of  soda,  because  all  the  gas  which 
bubbles  off  is  lost  as  leavening,  since  there  is  no  gluten 
present  to  retain  the  gas. 

Since  definite  amounts  of  acid  act  on  definite  amounts  of 
soda,  a  question  naturally  arises  in  regard  to  the  acidity 
of  sour  milk.  Is  it  always  uniformly  acid?  This  must 
be  answered  in  the  negative  for  milk  that  has  not  clabbered. 
But  after  that  stage  has  been  reached,  the  acidity  remains 
fairly  constant,  until  changes  take  place  in  the  milk  which 
render  it  unfit  for  food.  Therefore,  the  proportion  of  soda 
that  can  wisely  be  used  with  a  cup  of  clabbered  milk  is  a 
definite  one.  Many  recipes,  especially  when  enough  other 
flavoring,  such  as  chocolate  or  spice,  is  used  to  disguise  the 
taste  of  an  excess,  call  for  a  larger  proportion  of  soda.  The 
result  is  greatly  improved  if  the  soda  is  reduced  to  the  cor- 
rect amount,  and  if  more  leavening  is  needed  the  added 
amount  is  supplied  by  the  addition  of  baking  powder. 

Great  caution  must  be  taken  when  molasses  is  used  to 
act  as  the  acid  with  soda.  Modern  molasses  is  entirely 
different  in  respect  to  its  acidity,  being  always  much  less 
acid  than  of  old.  It  is  safer  to  allow  not  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  teaspoon  of  soda  to  a  cup  of  molasses,  if  the 
molasses  is  bought  in  bulk.  Use  baking  powder  for  the 
rest  of  the  leavening.  If  the  molasses  is  canned,  it  may 
have  practically  no  acidity  whatever,  and  baking  powder 
should  be  used  instead  of  any  soda. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  baking  soda  differ  from  washing  soda? 

2.  What  finally  becomes  of  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  from  the  soda 
used  in  griddle-cakes  ? 


226  FOOD  STUDY 

3.  Is  carbon  dioxide  harmful  ? 

4.  What  is  soda  water?    How  is  it  made? 

5.  Wherein  lies  the  chief  danger  of  drinking  soda  water  at  a  public 
store  if  it  is  managed  carelessly  ?    Are  there  any  laws  in  your  town 
or  city  governing  this  ? 

6.  Why  is  soda  soothing  to  a  burn  ?    When  should  it  not  be  used 
for  this  purpose  ? 

XLVII 
LEAVENING 

SWEET  MILK  GRIDDLECAKES 
SPONGE  CAKE 

A.    Class  Experiment.    BAKING  POWDER. 

1.  Mix  a  little  soda  and  cream  of  tartar.  Does  any- 
thing happen?     Add  water.     What  test  with 
litmus  paper  was  given  by  cream  of  tartar  and 
water  ? 

2.  Pour  a  tablespoon  of  water  on  half  a  teaspoon 
of  baking  powder.     Is  gas  given  off?     From 
this  experiment  what  two  substances  do  you 
suppose  that  baking  powder  contains? 

3.  Boil  (2).     When  cool,  add  iodine.     What  third 
substance  does  this  show  is  present? 

1  4.  Why  starch  is  used. 

Stir  together  half  a  teaspoon  of  starch  and  half  a 
teaspoon  of  water.  What  becomes  of  the  water  ? 
What  happens  if  the  soda  and  acid  in  baking 
powder  becomes  moist  ?  Why  is  starch  added  ? 
5.  Weigh  out  one  ounce  of  soda  and  two  and  a 
quarter  ounces  of  cream  of  tartar.  Add  half 
an  ounce  of  starch.  Mix  thoroughly  and  sift. 
Compare  the  cost  of  this  with  the  cost  of  an 


GRIDDLECAKES  —  SPONGE   CAKE 


227 


equal  weight  of  purchased  cream  of  tartar  bak- 
ing powder. 

B.    PREPAKE  SWEET  MILK  GRIDDLECAKES 
Use  one-fourth  of  the  following  proportions : 


LIQUID 
(milk) 

FLOUR 

EGG 

FAT 

SALT 

BAKING  POWDER 

1  C. 

? 

1 

1  tbsp. 

1  tsp. 

? 

The  usual  amount  of  baking  powder  is  two  teaspoons  to 
a  cup  of  flour.  How  does  the  amount  of  soda  used  in  the 
sour  milk  griddlecake  recipe  compare  with  the  amount  of 
baking  powder  used  here  ? 


C.    PREPARE  SPONGE  CAKE. 
Use  one-sixth  of  the  following  recipe. 
oven  at  338°  F. 


Bake  in   an 


*Yolks  6  eggs 

1  c.  sugar 

1  tbsp.  lemon  juice 


tsp.  salt 


Grated  rind  one-half  lemon 
*Whites  6  eggs 
1  c.  flour  (pastry) 


Beat  yolks  until  thick  and  lemon-colored,  add  sugar 
gradually,  and  continue  beating,  using  Dover  egg-beater. 
Add  lemon  juice,  rind,  and  whites  of  eggs  beaten  until  stiff 
and  dry.  When  whites  are  partially  mixed  with  yolks, 
remove  beater,  and  carefully  cut  and  fold  in  flour  mixed 
and  sifted  with  salt.  Bake  one  hour  in  a  slow  oven,  in 
an  angel-cake  pan  or  deep  narrow  pan. 

From  the  "  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book."  By 
FANNIE  M.  FARMER. 

*  The  eggs  in  this  recipe  may  be  reduced  to  four  with  good 

results. 


228  FOOD  STUDY 

BAKING  POWDERS 

While  baking  powders  are  now  practically  all  made  with 
soda  as  the  carbonate,  many  different  substances  are  used 
for  acid.  There  are  three  distinct  types  of  powders,  classi- 
fied according  to  their  composition.  The  oldest  type  is 
made  with  cream  of  tartar.  This  is  a  substance  which  is 
found  abundantly  in  grape  juice.  If  grape  juice  stands  in 
wooden  kegs,  cream  of  tartar  crystallizes  out  in  masses 
on  the  inside.  This  crude  substance,  argol  as  it  is  called, 
is  then  purified  by  being  dissolved  in  water,  filtered,  often 
through  bone  black,  so  as  to  remove  the  coloring  matter 
of  the  grapes,  and  then  re-crystallized  and  ground.  It 
makes  a  good  baking  powder,  because  it  is  not  easily  sol- 
uble in  water  and  does  not  need  much  "filler"  to  keep  it 
dry.  When  it  acts  with  the  soda,  besides  the  carbon 
dioxide  another  substance,  known  as  Rochelle  salts,  is 
formed.  This  substance  is  used  as  a  purgative  in  medi- 
cine, but  so  little  of  it  results  from  the  amount  of  baking 
powder  ordinarily  used  in  cooking  that  probably  it  has 
little  effect  on  the  human  system. 

Phosphate  powders,  a  second  type  of  baking  powder, 
are  usually  made  with  acid  calcium  phosphate.  These 
powders  give  a  good  deal  of  gas,  but  the  gas  is  evolved 
very  quickly.  More  filler  is  used  because  of  this.  The 
residue,  like  that  of  the  tartrate  powders,  is  also  purga- 
tive, but  probably  no  action  is  caused  from  the  amount 
usually  eaten. 

The  third  class,  alum  powders,  contains  most  com- 
monly potash  alum,  that  is,  potassium  aluminum  sul- 
phate, and,  since  alum  is  very  soluble,  even  more  filler  is 
used  than  in  the  phosphate  powders.  In  these  powders 
the  evolution  of  gas  is  much  more  continuous  than  in 
the  phosphate  types.  Much  objection  has  been  made 


BAKING  POWDERS  229 

to  these  powders,  because  it  was  feared  there  might  be 
injurious  effects  from  the  alum  used.  Repeated  ex- 
periments do  not  seem,  however,  to  show  that  the  resi- 
dues here  are  any  more  harmful  than  in  the  other  cases. 
Manufacturers  of  tartrate  powders  have  done  their  best 
to  prove  alum  powders  injurious  because,  as  alum  is  much 
less  expensive  than  cream  of  tartar,  these  last  powders  are 
naturally  much  cheaper. 

Besides  these  three  distinct  types,  there  are  mixed 
powders  in  which  more  than  one  acid  is  used.  Alum  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  the  phosphate  powders  to  make 
the  evolution  of  gas  more  continuous.  Tartaric  acid  it- 
self often  takes  the  place  of  a  part  of  the  cream  of  tartar 
in  a  tartrate  powder.  Probably  the  truth  of  the  matter 
is  that  too  much  of  them  is  not  good  for  digestion,  but  that, 
as  ordinarily  used,  they  are  all  harmless.  Nor  do  we 
ordinarily  make  much  account  of  the  difference  in  in- 
gredients in  our  actual  use  of  baking  powders. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  baking  powder,  cream  of  tartar 
and  soda  are  used.  For  one  teaspoon  of  soda  two  slightly 
rounded  teaspoons  of  cream  of  tartar  are  allowed.  This 
does  not  give  such  good  results  as  are  obtained  with 
purchased  baking  powders,  because  the  measuring  of  the 
soda  and  acid  is  not  nearly  so  accurate,  nor  is  the  mixing 
so  thorough.  Some  recipes  for  home-made  powders  call 
for  as  many  as  a  dozen  siftings  and  are,  therefore,  rather 
laborious  to  make. 

Since  over  two  parts  of  cream  of  tartar  are  used  for  one 
of  soda,  and  since  in  tartrate  baking  powder  there  is  also 
some  filler  present,  ranging  from  seven  to  about  twenty 
per  cent,  it  will  be  seen  that  only  about  one-fourth  of  the 
baking  powder  is  soda.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  substitute 
baking  powder  and  sweet  milk  for  soda  and  sour  milk,  about 
four  times  as  much  baking  powder  as  soda  must  be  used. 


230 


FOOD   STUDY 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Find  out  the  cost  per  pound  of  baking  powders  of  the  different 
types  found  on  your  market. 

2.  What  are  the  regulations  in  regard  to  baking  powders  for  sale  in 
interstate  commmerce  ? 

3.  Have  you  state  or  city  regulations  in  regard  to  baking  powders  ? 

4.  Correct  the  following  recipe  for  sour-milk  gingerbread  by  cal- 
culating the  amount  of  soda  to  use  with  this  amount  of  molasses, 
and  with  the  amount  of  sour  milk.     Subtract  the  sum  from  the 
amount  of  soda  given  in  the  recipe.     What  is  the  amount  of  the  extra 
soda  ?    How  much  baking  powder  will  you  add  to  replace  the  extra 
amount? 


1  c.  molasses 
1  c.  sour  milk 
2£  c.  flour 


1}  tsp.  soda 
2  tsp.  ginger 
£  tsp.  salt 
c.  melted  butter 


5.  What  is  the  leavening  in  sponge  cake? 
cooler  oven  than  ordinary  cake  ? 


Why  does  it  need  a 


XLVIII 
MUFFINS 

A.    PREPARE  MUFFINS. 

Use  one-fourth  of  one  of  the  following  proportions 


LIQUID 
(Milk) 

FLOUR 

EGG 

FAT 
(Butter) 

SUGAR 

SALT 

BAKING 
POWDER 

1. 

1  C. 

2c. 

1 

1 

1  tbsp. 

itsp. 

? 

2. 

1  c. 

2o. 

1 

2 

1  tbsp. 

itep. 

? 

3. 

1  c. 

2c. 

1 

2 

2  tbsp. 

*  tsp. 

? 

What  is  the  effect  of  fat  as  shown  in  (1)  and  (2)? 
sugar  as  shown  by  (2)  and  (3)  ? 


Of 


KINDS  OF  FLOUR  231 

B.  Class  Experiment.     WEIGHT  OF  FLOURS. 
Weigh  a  cup  of  each  of  the  following : 

1.  Bread  flour  sifted  once. 

2.  Whole  wheat  or  graham  flour.     (Sift,  but  replace 
the  bran.) 

3.  Corn  meal. 

4.  Rye  flour. 

C.  PREPARE  MUFFINS.     Follow  the  proportion  given 
in  (A  2),  but  use  only  one-half  of  the  amount  of  flour.    Use 
a  weight  of  one  of  the  other  flours  equal  to  the  weight  of 
the  omitted  flour. 


KINDS  OF  FLOUR 

More  than  one  kind  of  flour  is  manufactured  from  wheat. 
The  preparation  of  bread  flour  has  already  been  described, 
and  it  will  be  remembered  that  in  its  manufacture  all  of 
the  bran  coatings  are  removed.  When  none  of  these  out- 
side layers  is  removed,  but  all  are  ground  up  together,  true 
graham  flour  is  produced.  This  flour  was  named  after 
an  American  minister,  Dr.  Sylvester  Graham,  who  in- 
vented the  process.  He  advocated  this,  because  of  the 
supposed  wastefulness  of  throwing  away  so  much  nutri- 
ment as  chemical  analysis  showed  remained  in  the  dis- 
carded bran.  Later,  it  was  discovered  that  this  nutriment, 
largely  protein,  was  most  abundant  in  the  aleurone  or 
inner  layer  of  the  bran.  Therefore,  it  was  argued,  the 
outer  coats  could  be  discarded  and  only  the  inner  layer 
ground  with  the  kernel,  producing  a  flour  which  would 
be  less  coarse,  but  would  preserve  the  whole  nutriment 
of  the  wheat.  Accordingly,  this  received  the  somewhat 
misleading  name  of  whole  wheat  flour,  a  name  which  would 
really  much  more  accurately  describe  graham  flour.  For 


232  FOOD  STUDY 

a  while  after  this  flour  was  put  on  the  market,  much  was 
to  be  heard  about  the  superior  nutritive  value  of  whole 
wheat  bread,  compared  with  bread  made  from  white  flour. 
Later  work  has  shown  that  the  cells  containing  the  protein 
in  the  aleurone  layer  are  so  tough  that  few  of  them  are 
broken  in  the  grinding,  and  so  the  protein  present  is  not 
digested  easily.  Moreover,  the  whole  mass  passes  so 
much  more  rapidly  through  the  digestive  tract  that  ex- 
periment shows  that  rather  less  nutriment  is  actually 
absorbed  from  bread  made  from  the  coarser  varieties  of 
flour.  These  breads  may  have  their  place  in  the  diet, 
however,  because  they  contain  more  salts,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably due  to  these  that  they  possess  their  laxative  effect. 

Rye  is  the  only  flour  besides  wheat  flour  which  contains 
sufficient  gluten  to  make  risen  bread,  and  rye  bread  is 
much  more  moist  and  dense  than  white  bread.  Nearly 
all  recipes,  even  for  graham  and  whole  wheat  breads,  call 
for  the  addition  of  some  bread  flour.  In  making  corn- 
meal  muffins,  for  example,  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of 
the  flour  as  given  in  an  ordinary  recipe  for  muffins  may  be 
substituted  with  an  equal  weight  of  corn  meal.  The  more 
flour  used  in  proportion  to  the  corn  meal,  the  lighter  the 
muffins,  but,  of  course,  there  is  also  less  and  less  flavor 
of  corn  meal. 

Corn  meal  is  made  from  different  varieties  of  corn  giving 
a  white  or  a  yellow  meal.  Southerners  generally  use  white 
corn  meal,  and  northerners  yellow,  each  claiming  a  superi- 
ority for  their  product.  There  is  an  undoubted  difference 
in  flavor,  but  which  is  better  is  a  matter  of  taste  each 
individual  must  settle  for  himself. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  wheat  kernel. 

2.  How  many  pounds  are  there  in  a  barrel  of  flour  ? 


CAKE 


233 


3.  What  does  flour  cost  per  pound  ?    Per  barrel  ? 

4.  Is  there  any  advantage  in  buying  a  barrel  of  flour  instead  of  a 
quarter-barrel  sack? 

5.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  storing  flour  ? 

6.  How  does  the  nutritive  value  of  a  pound  of  flour  compare  with 
that  of  a  pound  of   cornstarch?     Of   corn  meal?     Of  beef  (the 
round)  ?    Compare  the  cost  of  a  hundred-calorie  portion  of  each,  as 
well  as  the  cost  per  pound. 

7.  How  many  muffins  of  average  size  can  you  make  from  two 
cups  of  flour  ? 


XLIX 
CAKE 

A.    MAKE  A  PLAIN  CAKE. 

Use  one-eighth  of  the  following  proportions 


LIQUID 
(Milk  or  water) 

FLOUR 
(Pastry) 

FAT 
(Butter) 

SUGAR 

EGGS 

BAKING  POWDER 

1  C. 

3c. 

Jo. 

l|c. 

4 

3  tsp. 

Add  a  few  grains  of  salt  and  a  few  drops  of  flavoring. 

Half  the  class  mix  as  in  (1),  the  other  half  as  in  (2). 
Compare  the  appearance  of  batters  before  baking  and  of 
cakes  after  baking.  Which  method  of  mixing  takes  less 
time?  Bake  cake  at  385°  F,  in  greased  pans  only  two- 
thirds  full,  until  it  shrinks  away  from  the  sides  of  the  pan 
and  springs  back  into  place  when  gently  pressed  on  top 
with  the  finger. 

1.  Cream  the  butter,  adding  the  sugar  gradually,  until 
the  two  are  as  well  mixed  as  possible.  Add  the 
beaten  yolks  of  eggs,  and  then  alternately  liquid  and 


234 


FOOD  STUDY 


flour  sifted  with  the  baking  powder.     Finally,  fold 
in  the  stiffly  beaten  whites. 

2.  Put  the  sugar  in  a  bowl  and  pour  in  the  liquid.  Stir 
and  let  stand,  while  you  separate  and  beat  the  eggs. 
Add  the  beaten  yolks  and  the  butter  melted.  Gradu- 
ally stir  in  the  flour  sifted  with  the  baking  powder 
and  finally  fold  in  the  stiffly  beaten  whites  as  before. 

B.    FROSTING. 

Frost  cake  with   uncooked  frosting,   I   or  II,   using 
one-fourth  the  amounts. 


Without  egg 

1  c.  powdered  sugar 

water 
milk 

2  tbsp.  liquid  <  cream 

orange  juice 
etc. 
1  tbsp.  lemon  juice 


II 

With  egg 

1  c.  powdered  sugar 
1  egg  white 
1  tsp.  flavoring 

Beat  with  a  spoon  till  mix- 
ture begins  to  thicken. 


C.    Class  Experiment. 

BREAD  FLOUR  AND  PASTRY  FLOUR. 

1.  Compare  bread  flour  and  pastry  flour : 

a.  Color. 

6.  Feeling. 

c.  Packing  in  hand  when  pressed. 

2.  Weigh  a  cup  of  pastry  flour  (sifted  once).     Com- 
pare with  the  weight  of  a  cup  of  bread  flour  de- 
termined in  the  last  lesson.     How  much  bread 
flour  is  equal  in  weight  to  a  cup  of  pastry  flour  ? 

3.  Fill  a  cup  with  pastry  flour.     Sift  and  remeas- 
ure.     Continue  sifting  as  long  as  there  is  any 
increase   in  volume.     How   many  times  is   it 
worth  while  to  sift  flour  for  cake? 


CAKE-MAKING  235 

4.  Wash  out  the  gluten  from  equal  weights  of  the 
two  flours  and  compare  the  amounts  obtained. 
(Add  water  gradually  to  make  a  dough  ball 
which  can  be  handled.  Knead  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand  under  running  water  or  in  a  bowl,  until 
all  of  the  starch  has  been  removed.  How  can 
this  be  tested?  Bake  a  small  portion  in  a  hot 
oven  as  for  pop-overs.) 

CAKE-MAKING 

At  first  glance  there  seems  to  be  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  recipes  for  cake.  Even  omitting  flavorings  as 
variations,  there  are  still  plain  cakes,  and  rich  cakes,  differ- 
ing in  the  amount  of  egg,  sugar,  and  butter  used,  until  one 
almost  concludes  that  any  proportions  will  do.  But  on 
further  analysis  certain  fundamental  facts  can  be  dis- 
tinguished. 

Take,  first,  the  proportion  of  liquid  to  flour.  Whether 
the  butter  is  melted  in  mixing  or  not,  it  melts  in  the  oven 
and  then  counts  as  liquid.  The  fat,  then,  as  well  as 
the  liquid,  must  be  counted.  If  a  richer  cake  is  de- 
sired than  the  one  made  in  the  laboratory,  the  amount 
of  butter  can  be  increased  if  the  amount  of  liquid  is  cor- 
respondingly decreased.  For  example,  good  cake  can  be 
made  with  three-quarters  of  a  cup  of  butter  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  cup  of  liquid,  or  with  a  cup  of  butter  and  a 
half  of  a  cup  of  liquid.  In  any  of  these  cases  the  sum  of 
the  two  is  still  one  and  a  half  cups.  In  "pound  cake"  the 
whole  amount  is  butter,  and  no  liquid  proper  is  used. 
Eggs,  on  the  other  hand,  while  they  increase  the  liquid 
before  baking,  do  not  count  as  liquid  after  heat  is  applied. 
The  sponge  cake  recipe  would  call  for  eighteen  eggs  to 
three  cups  of  flour,  with  three  tablespoons  of  lemon  juice. 


236  FOOD   STUDY 

Notice  the  very  large  number  of  eggs  necessary  when  so 
little  liquid  is  used.  In  pound  cake  the  proportions  for 
three  cups  of  flour  would  be  only  seven  and  a  half  eggs 
because  of  the  butter  used. 

Sugar  makes  the  cake  more  crumbly  as  more  and  more 
is  added,  and  increases  the  size  and  the  lightness,  but, 
meanwhile,  the  crust  becomes  sticky  and  tough,  and 
the  cake  sweeter  and  sweeter.  The  amount  of  sugar 
in  the  general  recipe  may  be  increased  to  two  cups  if 
one  likes  a  sweeter  cake.  If  chocolate  is  added,  the 
larger  amount  of  sugar  is  desirable. 

The  leavening  in  a  cake  of  the  type  that  is  being  dis- 
cussed, is  mainly  the  gas  from  the  baking  powder,  and  a 
skilled  cakemaker  can  get  good  results  without  beating  the 
egg  separately.  But  in  pound  and  sponge  cake  where  no 
baking  powder  is  used,  great  pains  in  folding  in  the  egg 
must  be  taken,  and  one  sees  why  nearly  twice  as  many 
eggs  for  the  same  amount  of  flour  are  used. 

If  one  is  making  a  butter  cake  the  great  question  is  in. 
regard  to  mixing.  The  problem  seems  to  resolve  itself 
into  the  easiest  way  to  get  the  ingredients  blended  very 
thoroughly.  Hard  butter  is  difficult  to  mix,  also  unbeaten 
egg.  If  the  butter  and  sugar  are  not  well  creamed,  the 
grain  of  the  cake  is  coarse.  On  the  other  hand,  the  butter 
may  be  melted  and  successfully  combined.  Since  beat- 
ing flour  with  liquid  develops  the  gluten  and  so  makes  the 
cake  tougher,  this  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
For  this  reason  the  melted  butter  is  better  beaten  in 
before  adding  the  flour,  instead  of  afterwards.  Melting 
the  butter  saves  much  time.  It  is  especially  convenient 
in  making  chocolate  cake,  for  the  chocolate  can  be  melted 
with  the  butter. 


BAKING-POWDER  BISCUITS 


237 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  pastry  flour  desirable  in  making  cake? 

2.  Account  for  the  rule  :  If  bread  flour  is  used  in  place  of  pastry  flour 
take  out  two  tablespoons  for  each  cup  of  flour  called  for  in  the  recipe. 

3.  In  making  cake  what  would  be  the  effect  of  using  bread  flour 
mixed  with  a  little  cornstarch,  say  half  a  cup  of  cornstarch  to  two 
cups  of  flour  ? 

4.  What  ingredients  are  changed  in  making  a  muffin   mixture 
into  a  cake  mixture  ? 

5.  Change  various  recipes  for  cake  to  a  three-cups-of-flour  basis, 
and  see  how  the  ingredients  called  for  correspond  to  the  general  rule. 


BAKING-POWDER   BISCUITS 
GINGERBREAD 

A.    PREPARE  BAKING-POWDER  BISCUITS. 
Use  one-half  of  the  following  recipe : 


FLOUR 

FAT 

SALT 

BAKING  POWDER 

MILK 

Ic. 

1  tbsp. 

itsp. 

Usual  proportion 
for  1  c.  flour 

? 

Add  milk  (find  out  how  much  is  needed)  to  make 
(1)  a  stiff  batter  to  be  dropped  from  a  spoon  into 

muffin  tins, 

or  (2)  a  very  soft  dough  which  can  be  rolled  out  from 
one-half  to  one  inch  thick  and  cut  into  biscuit, 
or  cut  into  small  pieces  and  patted  into  shape. 
The  dough  should  be  so  soft  that  it  is  sticky. 
Bake  in  an  oven  at  425-435°  F. 
a.  Bake  one  biscuit  at  once. 


238  FOOD   STUDY 

b.  Bake  another  after  letting  it  stand  from 
fifteen  minutes  to  a  half  an  hour. 

c.  Bake  a  third  biscuit  in  a  slow  oven. 

d.  Bake  a  fourth  after  kneading  the  dough  or 
vigorously  stirring  the  batter. 

Compare  the  results  and  decide  what  precautions  must 
be  taken  to  make  good  biscuit. 

B.    MAKE  SOUR-MILK  GINGERBREAD. 

Use  corrected  recipe  in  Question  4,  Lesson  XLVII. 

BAKING-POWDER  BISCUITS 

There  are  two  types  of  rolled  baking-powder  biscuits,  one 
small  and  practically  all  crust,  the  other  larger,  lighter, 
and  with  comparatively  little  crust.  To  make  the  first,  the 
biscuits  are  rolled  thinner  and  baked  farther  apart  than 
those  of  the  second  type  which  is,  perhaps,  the  more 
conventional. 

The  biscuits,  which  are  made  so  soft  as  to  drop  and 
which  need  the  support  of  muffin  tins  to  give  them  shape, 
are  more  crusty  than  the  more  usual  rolled  biscuit.  They 
are  often  called  "  emergency  biscuit ",  because  they  can 
be  prepared  so  quickly. 

After  the  liquid  is  added,  any  of  these  doughs  should 
be  worked  as  little  as  possible  for,  if  they  are,  the  gluten 
will  be  developed  too  much.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
fat  is  worked -in  before  the  liquid.  The  fat  can  be  cut  in 
easily  with  two  knives,  or  worked  in  with  a  fork,  or  rubbed 
in  with  the  fingers.  Since  it  is  easier  to  combine  the  fat 
when  it  is  cold,  the  first  methods  are  to  be  preferred,  espe- 
cially in  warm  weather.  With  as  stiff  a  mixture  as  this, 
there  is  no  escape  of  gas  from  the  dough  and  the  biscuits 
can  stand  without  harm  for  a  time  before  they  are  baked. 


BAKING-POWDER  BISCUITS  239 

In  fact,  standing  for  a  moderate  period  is  slightly  advan- 
tageous, because  it  gives  time  for  some  of  the  gas  to  be 
evolved  before  the  dough  is  baked  too  much  to  rise.  With 
a  batter  such  as  is  used  in  griddle-cakes,  the  gas  evolved 
soon  escapes,  and  if  the  batter  is  kept  over  until  another 
meal  more  baking  powder  must  be  added  before  using. 

Baking-powder  biscuit  dough,  or  a  dough  made  with 
slight  variations,  is  used  in  many  ways.  It  is  often  used 
as  a  crust  for  meat  pies,  and  sometimes  for  a  deep  fruit 
pie,  in  both  cases  there  being  no  lower  crust.  It  may  also 
be  used  for  fruit  dumplings.  Sometimes  baking-powder 
biscuit  dough  is  rolled  out  and  sprinkled  with  maple 
sugar,  or  with  sugar,  cinnamon,  raisins  and  currants  or 
citron.  The  dough  is  then  rolled  up  and  cut  off  in  pieees 
somewhat  less  than  an  inch  thick,  and  baked  as  biscuit. 
This  dough  may  have  some  sugar  added  in  the  making. 
Short-cake  is  only  baking-powder  biscuit  dough  with  more 
fat,  usually  double  the  amount,  and  with  some  sugar  added. 
Dutch  apple  cake  may  be  made  as  a  modification  of  the 
baking-powder  biscuit  recipe.  To  the  dough  made  with 
one  cup  of  liquid,  an  egg  and  two  tablespoons  of  sugar  are 
added.  Sour  milk  or  soda  biscuit  are  made  in  exactly  the 
same  way  as  baking-powder  biscuit,  except  that  sour  milk 
and  soda  replace  the  sweet  milk  and  baking  powder. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Write  a  recipe  for  soda  biscuit. 

2.  Is  the  habitual  use  of  hot  breads  to  be  recommended  ? 

3.  What  is  the  advantage  of  patting  baking-powder  biscuit  into 
shape,  instead  of  rolling  the  dough  ? 

4.  If  too  much  flour  is  used  in  shaping  the  biscuit,  what  is  the 
result? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  result,  if  butter  instead  of  lard  is 
used  as  the  fat  ?    If  half  butter  and  half  lard  is  used  ?    What  other 
fats  may  be  used  ? 


240  FOOD   STUDY 

6.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  texture  of  increasing  the  fat  ? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  texture  of  increasing  the  sugar  ? 

8.  How  many  average-sized  biscuits  will  one  cup  of  flour  make  ? 
How  much  flour  would  you  allow  for  biscuits  for  breakfast  for  a 
family  of  five  ? 

LI 
SUGAR   COOKIES 

GlNGERSNAPS 

A.    Class  Experiments.    YEAST. 

I.  Blend  a  yeast  cake  with  a  cup  of  water  in  which 
a  teaspoon  of  molasses  has  been  mixed.  Divide  into  four 
portions. 

1.  Freeze  the  first  and  then  let  it  stand  at  room  tem- 
perature. 

2.  Boil  the  second  and  let  it  cool  to  room  temperature. 

3.  Heat  the  third  to  lukewarm. 

In  turn,  fill  a  test  tube  with  part  of  each  of  these  three 
portions  and  invert  in  the  remaining  liquid,  taking  care 
not  to  admit  bubbles  of  air  into  the  tubes.  Use  cups  or 
tumblers,  if  no  beakers  are  at  hand.  While  inverting,  the 
test  tubes  may  be  covered  with  the  thumb  or  a  piece  of 
stiff  paper.  Keep  at  room  temperature,  and  note  result 
after  an  hour  or  two. 

4.  Chill  the  fourth  portion,  fill  a  test  tube  with  the  mix- 
ture and  invert  as  above,  and  place  in  an  ice-box,  or  out  of 
doors  if  it  is  cold  weather.     Compare  the  result  with  the 
others  after  the  same  length  of  time. 

II.  Examine  under  a  microscope  yeast  from  an  actively 
fermenting  liquid,  and  make  a  drawing  of  a  "plant/' 

III.  Observe  the  action  of  yeast  with   the  following 
food  materials  and  account  for  the  results.     Use  J  yeast 


YEAST  241 

cake  and  J  c.  liquid  in  each  case.     Invert  in  test  tubes 
as  before. 

1.  Water. 

2.  Water  with  |  tsp.  flour. 

3.  Milk. 

4.  Water  in  which  potatoes  have  been  cooked. 

5.  Water  and  J  tsp.  of  starch. 

6.  Water  and  J  tsp.  of  sugar. 

B.    MAKE  SUGAR  COOKIES  OR  GINGERSNAPS. 
SUGAR  COOKIES. 

2  tbsp.  fat  £  ssp.  soda 

j  c.  sugar  J  tsp.  baking  powder 

If  tbsp.  egg  |  c.  flour  and  amount  neces- 

1  tbsp.  sour  milk  sary  to  roll 

A  few  drops  of  vanilla 

GINGERSNAPS. 

j  c.  brown  sugar  \  tbsp.  cinnamon 

£  c.  molasses  1  tbsp.  lemon  juice 

3  tbsp.  fat  A  little  grated  lemon  rind 
\  tbsp.  ginger  1  c.  flour 

\  tsp.  soda 

Roll  as  thin  as  possible. 

YEAST 

The  compressed  and  dried  yeast  cakes  sold  in  stores  are 
usually  made  from  yeast  obtained  from  distilleries.  Here 
the  yeast  is  grown  by  sowing  it  in  "wort",  as  it  is  called,  a 
mixture  of  crushed  grain  or  mashed  potatoes,  warm  water, 
and  sprouted  barley.  Under  these  conditions  the  yeast 
plants  multiply  rapidly.  The  yeast  which  collects  as  a 
scum  on  top  of  the  wort  is  preferred  for  bread  yeast, 
although  the  yeast  which  settles  out  at  the  bottom  is 
sometimes  used.  The  yeast  is  freed  from  impurities  as 


242 


FOOD   STUDY 


far  as  possible,  pressed  to  remove  the  water,  and  then  cut 
into  cakes  which  are  wrapped  in  tin  foil.  Starch  may  be 
mixed  with  the  yeast  before  the  pressing  process  takes 
place.  A  small  percentage  of  starch  helps  to  keep  the 
yeast,  especially  in  warm  weather,  as  well  as  making  it 
easier  to  mix  with  the  flour  in  bread-making.  As  the 
amount  of  starch  used  varied  from  five  to  fifty  per  cent, 
the  government  recently  has  ruled  that  if  starch  is  used 
in  compressed  yeast  cakes,  its  presence  must  be  stated  on 
the  label. 

Compressed    yeast    cakes 
must  be  fresh  to  be  in  good 


From  Conn's  "  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  In  the  Home." 

1.  YEAST  FROM  A  DRIED         2.   THE  SAME  YEAST  AFTER 
YEAST  CAKE.  A  FEW  HOURS'  GROWTH. 

condition,  and  this  can  be  told  readily  on  examination. 
The  cakes  should  be  creamy  white,  not  dark ;  uniform  in 
color,  not  streaked ;  a  firm,  even  texture,  not  slimy ;  and 
there  should  be  no  disagreeable  odor. 

Compressed  yeast  in  good  condition  can  usually  be 
purchased  in  places  of  any  size.  In  remote  districts,  how- 
ever, it  cannot  always  be  obtained  while  it  is  sufficiently 
fresh  for  use.  Such  communities  may  use  dried  yeast 
cakes  which  are  made  from  the  same  yeast  as  the  com- 
pressed yeast  cakes.  After  the  yeast  is  mixed  with  starch 
or  meal,  it  is  partly  dried,  either  in  the  sun  or  at  a  low 
temperature  under  pressure.  Under  these  conditions 
some  of  the  yeast  cells  die,  while  others  pass  into  a  resting 


YEAST  243 

stage.  Thus  the  dried  yeast  is  not  so  active  as  com- 
pressed yeast  and  it  takes  longer  to  start  fermentation. 
Time  must  be  allowed  for  dried  yeast  to  become  actively 
growing  and  multiplying. 

Some  housekeepers  "make  yeast"  at  home  by  using 
commercial  yeast  to  start  the  growth.  This  is  usually 
accomplished  by  adding  a  little  dried  yeast,  or  yeast  from 
a  previous  growth,  to  potatoes  which  have  been  grated, 
mixed  with  water,  and  boiled  and  cooled.  A  small  amount 
of  sugar  is  also  added. 

Brewers  sell  yeast  in  a  liquid  form,  but  usually  to  bak- 
eries rather  than  for  use  in  private  families,  for  such  yeast 
must  be  used  at  once  and  is  more  trouble  to  transport 
than  are  yeast  cakes. 

There  are  many  different  varieties  of  yeast,  and  the 
one  sold  for  bread-making  has  really  been  selected  as  best 
for  making  fermented  liquors,  rather  than  because  it  is 
known  to  be  the  best  for  bread-making.  Wild  yeasts  are 
sometimes  used  in  making  the  so-called  salt-rising  bread. 
Here,  milk  is  mixed  with  a  little  flour  and  salt  and  set  aside 
to  ferment.  The  action  is  apparently  not  always  due  to 
the  same  cause.  Sometimes  wild  yeasts  are  present, 
and  at  other  times  the  action  is  entirely  due  to  bacteria. 
Bread  made  in  this  way  is  much  less  uniform  than  that 
made  with  cultivated  yeast. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  although  fermentation 
has  been  recognized  and  practised  from  very  early  times, 
nothing  definite  was  known  about  the  cause  until  Pasteur 
worked  out  the  problem  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  account  of  how  he  went  to  work  to  prove 
that  yeast-cells  really  produced  the  changes  and  that  they 
did  not  originate  spontaneously,  as  was  believed  previ- 
ously, is  a  fascinating  story  of  scientific  research.1 

1 "  Life  of  Louis  Pasteur,"  by  Radot. 


244  FOOD   STUDY 


REFERENCE 

CONN.     "  Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  in  the  Home,"  section  on 
Yeasts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  recipe  for  sugar  cookies  with  the  muffin  recipe. 
What  is  the  effect  of  the  increase  of  fat  and  the  addition  of  sugar  ? 
Why  can  cookies  be  rolled  out  without  danger  of  toughening  them  ? 

2.  Compare  the  recipe  given  for  sugar  cookies  with  one  containing 
more  fat,  as,  for  example,  Miss  Farmer's  recipe  for  rich  cookies. 
What  difference  will  you  expect  in  the  two  kinds  of  cookies  ?     Cal- 
culate the  difference  in  cost. 

3.  Show  what  different  flavors  could  be  added  to  your  recipes  to 
make  different  varieties  of  cookies.     Tell  in  each  case  how  and  when 
the  new  ingredient  would  be  added. 

4.  What  fats  could  be  used  in  making  sugar  cookies  ?  gingersnaps  ? 


LII 

BREAD-MAKING 
A.    MAKE  BREAD. 

\  tsp.  fat  (lard) 

\  tsp.  sugar 

\  tsp.  salt 

|  c.  boiling  liquid  (water,  or  milk  and  water) 

Pour  the  liquid  over  the  other  ingredients.  Let  them 
stand  until  lukewarm  (98°).  Add  J  to  \  1  yeast  cake 
softened  in  \  tbsp.  lukewarm  water.  Sift  in  gradually 
f  c.  flour,  or  as  much  as  is  needed  to  make  a  dough  as  soft 
as  can  be  handled.  Knead  thoroughly  but  lightly,  until 

1  This  large  amount  of  yeast  is  added  to  enable  the  process  of 
bread-making  to  be  carried  through  in  a  very  short  time.  For 
ordinary  home  use  the  proportions  would  be  one  yeast  cake  to  a 
pint  of  liquid.  The  bread  in  this  lesson  can  be  mixed  and  baked 
in  two  hours. 


BREAD-MAKING  245 

it  is  elastic  and  does  not  stick  to  the  hands.  Place  over 
lukewarm  water  in  the  top  of  a  double  boiler  which  may  be 
greased.  Cover  tightly.  (Why?)  The  top  of  the  dough 
may  be  brushed  lightly  with  fat.  (Why?)  Maintain 
the  lukewarm  temperature  until  the  dough  has  doubled 
in  bulk. 

Knead  again  until  the  bubbles  have  been  evenly  dis- 
tributed, adding  no  more  flour  than  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  dough  from  sticking.  Shape  into  a  loaf,  first  cutting 
off  sufficient  dough  to  make  two  biscuits. 

Place  the  loaf  in  a  greased  tin,  cover,  and  let  rise  until 
the  loaf  has  doubled  in  size.  Place  in  an  oven  at  450°  F. 
for  ten  minutes,  and  finish  baking  at  365°  to  385°  F. 

Knead  a  little  extra  fat  into  the  biscuit  dough,  shape, 
and  let  rise  as  in  the  case  of  the  loaf.  The  best  tempera- 
ture for  baking  rolls  is  435°  F. 

B.    Class  Work.    KNEADING. 

One  student  should  make  a  larger  quantity  of  dough, 
and  each  student  in  turn  should  be  taught  the  correct 
process  of  kneading  with  the  larger  amount. 

BREAD-MIXING 

The  term  "breads"  or  " breadstuff s"  includes  unleav- 
ened bread,  as  well  as  bread  which  is  raised  with  yeast  or 
with  gas  from  soda.  The  term  "  bread  "  is  usually  confined 
to  bread  made  with  yeast,  and  it  is  so  used  here. 

The  essentials  in  bread -making  are  flour,  liquid,  salt, 
and  yeast.  Fat  is  usually  added,  and  other  ingredients 
may  be. 

Bread  is  made  in  two  ways,  and  is  known  as  short- 
and  long-process  bread.  The  method  of  making  short- 
process  bread  is  the  more  modern.  This  method  became 


246  FOOD  STUDY 

possible  only  with  the  availability  of  fresh  yeast,  such  as 
is  found  in  compressed  yeast  cakes.  In  short-process 
bread-making,  the  yeast  is  stirred  with  lukewarm  water 
and  mixed  with  sufficient  flour  and  warm  water  to  obtain  a 
dough  of  the  desired  consistency.  The  combination  may 
be  made  by  stirring  the  water  into  the  flour,  or  vice-versa. 
If  fat  is  to  be  used,  it  is  melted  by  pouring  hot  water  over 
it  and  then  allowed  to  cool  to  the  proper  temperature. 
The  yeast  is  stirred  with  water  to  separate  it,  so  that  it 
can  be  mixed  more  readily  with  the  other  ingredients. 
The  water  should  be  warm,  about  90°  F.,  in  order  to  hasten 
the  growth  of  the  yeast.  This  is  desirable,  because  less 
time  is  given  for  the  development  of  bacteria  which  may 
cause  the  dough  to  become  sour.  In  order  to  maintain  the 
suitable  temperature  after  mixing,  the  dough  is  covered 
to  prevent  its  cooling  and  also  drying.  The  flour  fur- 
nishes both  protein  and  starch  as  food  for  the  yeast  plants. 
Pure  yeast  cannot  act  directly  on  starch. 

Flour  contains  diastase,  an  enzyme  not  unlike  the 
ptyalin  found  in  saliva,  which  is  capable  of  changing  the 
starch  into  sugar.  As  soon  as  sugar  is  produced,  the  yeast 
begins  to  act  upon  it  by  means  of  the  ferments  which  it 
contains.  These  break  up  the  sugar  present  into  carbon 
dioxide  and  alcohol.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  a  gas  which 
cannot  escape  easily  through  the  dough,  since  the  gluten 
present  holds  it,  much  as  the  soap  in  soapsuds  holds  air 
when  one  blows  into  it. 

Gluten  in  flour  is  developed  by  kneading,  since  this 
mixes  water  with  the  glutenin  and  gliadin,  two  proteins 
found  in  flour.  Many  people  have  an  idea  that  bread 
must  be  kneaded  with  great  force,  but  this  is  a  mistake. 
The  more  lightly  the  dough  is  handled,  the  better  the  tex- 
ture of  the  bread.  As  little  flour  as  possible  should  be 
used,  but,  of  course,  enough  must  be  added  to  enable  the 


BREAD-MAKING  247 

dough  to  be  handled  without  sticking  to  the  board  or  the 
fingers.  Experience  makes  it  possible  to  handle  a  very 
soft  dough,  and  this  is  probably  one  of  the  ways  in  which 
skill  counts  in  bread-making. 

As  the  yeast  grows  and  produces  carbon  dioxide,  the 
dough  is  stretched  by  the  gas  until  it  is  full  of  bubbles,  and 
"rises."  The  action  is  allowed  to  go  on,  until  the  dough 
has  doubled  in  bulk.  At  this  stage,  it  could  be  baked, 
but  it  would  give  a  bread  of  very  uneven  texture,  for,  with 
all  the  care  in  mixing,  the  bubbles  of  gas  are  unevenly 
distributed  and  some  are  very  large.  So,  instead  of  being 
baked,  the  dough  is  kneaded  again,  this  time  to  break 
up  the  larger  bubbles  and  to  distribute  the  gas  as  evenly  as 
possible.  Then  the  dough  is  shaped  into  loaves.  It  is 
again  set  in  a  warm  place  for  the  yeast  to  produce  more 
gas,  since  some  was  lost  in  the  kneading  process.  When 
the  dough  has  doubled  in  bulk,  it  is  ready  for  baking. 

Fat  is  commonly  added  because  the  bread  is  "  shorter", 
as  it  is  called,  that  is,  less  tough .  Sugar  is  sometimes  added 
to  hasten  the  starting  of  the  yeast,  as  well  as  to  make  the 
bread  more  tender.  Potatoes  and  potato  water  also  seem 
to  stimulate  the  yeast  to  quicker  action,  and  to  make  the 
bread  less  dry  after  it  is  baked.  Milk  may  be  used  as  the 
liquid  in  place  of  part  or  of  all  of  the  water.  It  adds  some 
fat  as  well  as  a  little  more  food  value  to  the  bread  and 
changes  its  flavor  somewhat.  If  milk  be  used,  it  is  first 
scalded  to  kill  some  of  the  bacteria  present.  There  is 
always  danger  of  the  dough  souring,  because  the  yeast 
itself  is  not  free  from  bacteria,  and  some  kinds  of  bacteria 
act  on  the  alcohol  and  produce  acids  which  make  the 
bread  sour.  In  a  short-process  bread,  there  is  less  danger 
of  sour  dough,  because  the  yeast  usually  acts  too  quickly 
to  give  the  bacteria  time  to  multiply  sufficiently  to  produce 
enough  acid  to  sour  the  dough. 


248  FOOD   STUDY 

The  liquid  must  not  be  mixed  with  the  yeast  while  it  is 
too  hot,  or  the  yeast  will  be  killed.  Yeast  plants  cannot 
stand  a  temperature  of  130°  F. 

The  length  of  time  necessary  to  make  bread  by  the  short 
process  depends  upon  the  amount  of  yeast  used.  If  the 
first  rising  is  to  be  overnight,  usually  from  one-fourth  to 
one-half  of  a  yeast  cake  is  used  for  each  quart  of  liquid. 
To  shorten  the  time  of  rising,  the  amount  of  yeast  can  be 
increased  almost  indefinitely.  Even  as  many  as  five  or 
six  cakes  of  yeast  can  be  used  and,  if  they  are  perfectly 
fresh,  they  will  not  give  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  bread. 
But  since  they  increase  the  cost  of  the  bread  unduly, 
usually  not  more  than  a  cake  to  a  quart  of  liquid  is  used. 

Since  neither  yeast  nor  bacteria  grow  well  in  the  cold, 
it  is  possible  to  check  the  rising  of  the  dough  by  placing 
it  in  an  ice-chest  or  some  other  cold  place.  This  is  some- 
times done  in  order  to  keep  the  dough  so  that  hot  biscuits 
may  be  served  at  a  special  time. 

Long-process  bread  is  made  by  setting  a  sponge.  This 
means  that  in  the  first  mixing  only  about  half  the  flour  is 
used.  The  sponge,  as  it  is  called,  is  really  a  batter.  This 
is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  is  very  light  and  foamy.  Then 
the  rest  of  the  flour  is  mixed  with  it  and  the  dough  is 
then  treated  as  if  this  were  the  first  mixing  in  short-process 
bread.  The  advantage  of  this  way  of  making  bread  is  that 
dry  yeast  can  be  used,  for  the  rising  of  the  sponge  gives 
time  for  it  to  become  actively-growing  yeast.  Some  cooks 
set  a  sponge  when  using  compressed  yeast,  but  there  is  no 
necessity  for  doing  so,  and  as  the  long  process  means  more 
work  than  the  short  process,  the  latter  method  should  be 
preferred. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  389.  "Bread  and 
Bread-Making." 


BREAD  249 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  will  happen  in  bread-mixing : 

(a)  if  the  weather  is  too  warm  ? 

(6)  if,  in  very  cold  water,  the  flour  is  not  warmed  ? 

(e)  if  the  bread  is  put  to  rise  in  too  warm  a  place  ? 

(d)  if  the  bread  is  put  to  rise  in  too  cold  a  place  ? 

(e)  if  the  bread  is   insufficiently  kneaded  before  shaping 
into  loaves? 

(/)  if  the  bread  is  kneaded  too  heavily  ? 
(g)  if  too  much  flour  is  used  ? 

2.  What  may  happen  if  the  liquid  is  not  scalded  ? 

3.  When  is  it  advantageous  to  use  a  bread  mixer  ? 

4.  Why  is  a  different  temperature  required  in  baking  bread  and 
rolls? 

LIII 
BREAD 

ROLLS 
GRAHAM  AND  OATMEAL  BREAD 

A.    Class  Work.    PARKER  HOUSE  ROLLS. 

Make  Parker  House  rolls  by  the  long  process  method  of 
making  bread. 

Use: 

2  c.  scalded  milk  1^  tsp.  salt 

3  tbsp.  butter  1  yeast  cake 

2  tbsp.  sugar  3  c.  flour  to  make  sponge 

About  3  c.  flour  to  make  dough 

When  ready  to  form  rolls,  divide  the  dough  into  small 
pieces  and  shape  into  Parker  House  rolls,  tea  biscuits, 
finger  rolls,  cinnamon  rolls,  and  the  like.  See  cook  books 
for  directions. 


250  FOOD  STUDY 

B.    MAKE  GRAHAM  OR  OATMEAL  BREAD. 
Follow  the  short  process  of  making  bread. 
GRAHAM  BREAD. 


1     r    'ri  I  ^  c- 

1  1  c.  water  (3  tbsp.  may  be  potato  water) 
1  yeast  cake  (  ?)* 
1  j  c.  white  flour 
1  f  c.  graham  flour 

1  tsp.  salt 

2  tbsp.  brown  sugar,  or  \  c.  molasses 

OATMEAL  BREAD. 

Pour  two  cups  of  boiling  water  over  one  cup  of  rolled  oats. 

Add  4  tbsp.  brown  sugar,  or  ^  c.  molasses 

2  tbsp.  fat 

1  tsp.  salt 

1  yeast  cake  (?)  1 

Flour  to  make  a  stiff  dough,  about  4^  c. 

BREAD 

When  bread  has  risen  sufficiently,  it  is  placed  in  a  hot 
oven  at  about  450°  F.  Baking  the  dough  accomplishes 
a  number  of  things.  It  kills  the  yeast  plants  so  that 
fermentation  stops  ;  it  also  kills  any  bacteria  which  may 
be  present  ;  it  expands  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  so  that  the 
loaf  is  larger  after  than  before  baking;  it  vaporizes  the 
alcohol  and  drives  it  off;  it  hardens  the  gluten  so  that 
the  bread,  once  risen,  will  keep  its  shape  and  will  not  fall 
when  it  cools  ;  and,  finally,  it  causes  the  starch  on  the  in- 
side of  the  loaf  to  take  up  water  and  become  hydrated, 
while  it  dextrinizes  some  of  the  starch  in  the  crust. 

As  these  are  all  essential  processes,  it  is  important  to  be 
sure  that  the  bread  is  so  thoroughly  baked  as  to  effect 

1  Amount  depends  on  time  to  be  given  to  rising. 


BREAD 


251 


U.S Department  of  Agriculture  Reared  by 

Office  of  Experiment  Station,  C-FTLANGWORTW 

A-CTrwe;  Director-  G^ert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

mill]      E%&ga      msm  &$$$      in  inn      ••.Revalue 

Phton  Fat 

WHITE  BREAD 


Aah  Water 

WHOLE  WHEAT  BREAD 


35.3 


Fat:  1.3 


Ashtl.1 


FUE.L    VALUE 


OAT 
BREAKFAST  FOOD 


FuEL     VALUE: 


121 5  CALORIES        \A/Af«r.  R4  ^ 
PER  POUND  VVJt«r;_O2.D 


TOASTED 

BREAD 


Ash: 


ates:11.5 


CORN  BREAD 

I285CALOHIE5 


MACARONI 

COOKCO 

Fat:1.5        FVotein:  3.0  ^Waten  78.4 


1205  CA 

PER   POUND 


«     ,  >-^ieo  '""•     •         141  5  CALORIES 

Carbohydrates:  15.8       VALUE; •     I  PER  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OF  BEEAD  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  PRODUCTS 


252  FOOD   STUDY 

all  these  results.  In  bread  which  is  insufficiently  baked 
all  the  organisms  which  are  present  may  not  be  killed, 
and  it  may  grow  sour  as  it  is  kept.  Bread  is  sufficiently 
baked  when  tapping  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  loaf  pro- 
duces hollow  sounds.  Since  long  baking  is  so  desirable, 
many  people  lower  the  heat  after  the  bread  is  well  baked, 
and  leave  the  loaves  in  the  oven  for  a  long  time. 

Bread-making  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  common 
subjects  for  cooking  contests  because,  if  one  is  to  count  on 
always  turning  out  excellent  results,  considerable  skill  is 
required,  as  well  as  knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  all  the 
steps.  The  requirements  for  a  perfect  loaf  are  shown  by 
the  score  cards  used  in  judging  such  contests.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  one  given  in  the  U.  S.  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  225. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  JUDGING  BREAD 

Thoroughness  of  baking       20 

Color  (1)  Shade,  golden  brown 6 

(2)  Evenness 6 

Shape  of  loaves,  oblong,  1  to  2  Ibs 8 

Sweetness,  no  sourness  after  thorough  mastication  ...  25 

Flavor,  slightly  milky , 15 

Quality  of  crumb,  moist  but  not  wet 8 

Evenness  of  crumb      .     .  ; . .  3 

Firmness  of  crumb 4 

Color  of  crumb,  cream  rather  than  pearl  white    ....  5 

Total  100 

To  obtain  the  best  results  in  baking,  the  loaves  should 
be  single  and  about  4  inches  X  4J  inches  X  9  inches  in 
size. 

Freshly  baked  bread  is  indigestible,  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  mastication.  Such  bread  tends  to  roll  up 
into  a  pasty  mass  instead  of  breaking  up  as  a  cracker  does 
when  it  is  chewed. 


BREAD  AND  ROLLS  MADE  WITH  ONE  YEAST  CAKE 


GRAHAM  BREAD  MADE  WITHOUT  KNEADING 


LOAF  OF  BREAD  AND  PARKER  HOUSE  ROLLS 

From  "  Cooking  for  Two,"  by  Janet  McKenzie  Hill. 


BREAD  253 

Bakers'  bread  is  usually  much  lighter  than  home-made 
bread,  a  slice  of  given  dimensions  weighing  about  half 
as  much  as  a  slice  of  home-made  bread  of  the  same 
size.  It  is,  of  course,  slice  for  slice,  just  about  half  as 
nutritious,  and  we  usually  eat  more  of  the  bakers'  bread 
to  satisfy  our  appetites.  This  does  not  condemn  bakers' 
bread  as  a  food,  but  the  fact  remains  that  this  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  comparing  the  cost  of  pur- 
chased with  that  of  home-made  bread.  The  demand  for 
the  ready-made  product  is  becoming  so  great  that  usually 
a  fairly  well-made  bread  can  be  purchased  almost  any- 
where and  the  average  quality  is  probably  better  than  in 
the  average  home-made  product,  for  many  housewives 
make  bread  much  below  the  standard. 

Since  yeast  leaves  no  such  questionable  residues  in  the 
bread  as  baking  powder  does,  the  constant  use  of  yeast  bread 
is  supposed  to  be  preferable  to  that  of  baking-powder 
breads,  but  the  bad  effects  of  the  too  continued  use  of 
the  latter  may  be  partly  the  result  of  the  habit  of  eating 
such  breads  hot  instead  of  cold. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  would  you  prefer  to  make  a  long-process  bread? 

2.  Why  should  bread  not  be  put  away  while  it  is  still  warm  ? 

3.  Why  is  bread  stored  in  a  bread-box  ? 

4.  Why  should  cake  and  bread  be  kept  in  separate  boxes  ? 

5.  Compare  the  weight  and  the  price  of  home-made  and  bakers' 
loaves  of  bread. 

6.  Compare  the  cost  per  loaf,  if  short-process  bread  is  set  over 
night,  or  is  made  in  two  hours. 

7.  Compare  the  cost  of  making  bread  with  compressed  yeast  set 
over  night,  and  with  dried  yeast  used  in  long-process  bread. 

8.  What  is  "potato  yeast"  ?    How  is  it  made  and  used? 

9.  How  would  you  make  whole  wheat  bread  ?  rye  bread  ? 

10.  Why  is  some  white  flour  used  in  making  such  breads  as 
graham,  rye,  and  oatmeal  ? 


254  FOOD   STUDY 

LIV 
PIES 

A.  Class  Experiments. 

CORRECT  PROPORTIONS  OF  FAT  AND  LIQUID  TO  FLOUR. 

I.  (a)  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  lard  and  three  teaspoons  of 

flour  into  a  small  cake  and  bake. 
(6)  Repeat,  using  butter  instead  of  lard, 
(c)  To  explain  the  difference  in  the  results,  melt, 

over  hot  water,  1  oz.  butter  and  1  oz.  lard. 

Let  stand,  and  notice  any  differences.     How 

would  you  substitute  one  for  the  other  ? 

II.  (a)  Repeat  I  (a),  but  add   to  each   a  carefully 

measured  amount  of  water,  the  least  possible 
necessary  to  make  the  mixture  hold  together. 
How  much  is  used  ? 

(6)  Repeat,  using  twice  as  much  water. 

(c)  Repeat,  using  three  times  as  much  water. 

III.  Repeat  II  (a),  but  use  very  hard  fat  and  ice  water, 
cutting  them  into  the  flour  with  a  knife.     Why? 
Write  a  recipe  with  directions  for  making  pie  crust. 

B.  PREPARE  PIE  CRUST. 
Use  either: 

1.  All  butter. 

2.  All  lard. 

3.  Half  lard  and  half  butter. 

4.  All  Crisco. 

What  proportion  of  fat  will  you  use  in  each  case? 
How  will  the  amount  of  salt  vary  with  the  amount  of  fat 
used  ?  Roll  out  crust. 


PASTRY  255 

1.  Cover  the  bottom  of  a  small  inverted  pie-plate  with 
a  very  thin  crust.     Prick  with  a  fork.     Bake  in  a  hot 
oven  for  a  few  minutes.     Slip  the  crust  into  the  in- 
side of  the  plate  and  finish  baking. 

2.  Cover  the  inside  of  the  plate  with  crust.     Do  not 
prick.     Bake  as  before.     Compare  with  (1)  for  use 
as  a  shell  for  pie.     Explain  the  behavior  of  (2). 

3.  Bake  a  piece  of  the  crust  trimmings  in  a  very  slow 
oven.     Decide  upon  the  best  temperature  for  baking 
pastry  shells. 

C.    PREPARE  AN  APPLE  PIE. 

PASTRY 

Pastry  flour  differs  from  bread  flour  in  having  a  smaller 
amount  of  gluten  and  a  larger  amount  of  starch.  The 
advantage  in  using  it  for  pastry  and  for  cake  is  that  so 
made  they  are  more  tender  than  when  made  with  the 
larger  amount  of  gluten.  It  is  quite  possible,  however, 
to  make  both  good  pastry  and  good  cake  with  ordinary 
bread  flour.  If  bread  flour  be  used,  greater  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  develop  the  gluten  by  too  much  working. 
This  is  just  the  opposite  of  what  we  try  to  do  in  making 
bread. 

Pastry  flour  is  made  in  two  ways.  It  is  sometimes  made 
by  grinding  the  "softer"  winter  wheat;  sometimes  by 
selecting  the  flour  stream  from  the  grinding  of  "hard"  or 
spring  wheat,  which  will  furnish  the  largest  percentage  of 
starch.  The  housekeeper  may  get  much  the  same  effect 
by  adding  cornstarch  to  bread  flour,  using  three  parts  of 
flour  to  one  part  of  cornstarch.  The  flour  sold  as  pastry 
flour  is  often  unsatisfactory,  being  in  reality  only  a  poorer 
grade  of  flour  and  one  not  adapted  especially  to  pie-  and 
cake-making.  Pastry  flour  is  distinguished  from  bread 


256  FOOD   STUDY 

flour  by  its  whiter  color,  its  smoother  and  less  gritty  qual- 
ity, and  by  its  retaining  better  the  print  of  the  fingers,  if 
squeezed  in  the  hand. 

Since  no  leavening  agent  is  ordinarily  used  in  pie  crust, 
careful  handling  is  necessary  to  entangle  air  in  the  dough 
so  that  the  heat  of  the  oven  shall  expand  it  and  produce 
a  light  crust.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  many  foldings 
of  the  dough  after  it  is  first  rolled  out.  This  folding  makes 
many  horizontal  layers  which  in  a  light,  baked  crust  are 
separated  somewhat  from  each  other.  The  large  amount 
of  fat  undoubtedly  helps  in  the  power  of  these  layers  to 
retain  gas  which  may  be  partly  the  air,  as  already  men- 
tioned, as  well  as  vapor  from  the  water  in  the  dough. 
Moisture  undoubtedly  plays  a  larger  part  in  leavening 
pastry  than  it  does  in  bread,  because  here  the  thin  layer 
of  crust  is  heated  more  quickly  to  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture than  that  of  the  inside  of  a  loaf  of  bread. 

Fat  in  pie  crust  makes  it  short  and  flaky.  Different 
fats  are  used,  butter,  oleomargarine,  lard,  Crisco,  cottolene, 
and  the  like.  Butter  usually  gives  the  best  flavor,  but  it 
is  the  most  expensive.  Sometimes  part  butter  is  used. 

Pie  crust  is  not  generally  considered  very  digestible, 
due  to  a  number  of  reasons.  The  lower  crust,  if  wet  and 
soggy  and  underdone,  forms  a  soft  mass  which  is  rarely 
properly  mixed  with  saliva  in  chewing.  Well-baked  pie 
crust  which  is  flaky  and  crisp  undoubtedly  breaks  up 
better  and  so  is  more  digestible.  Overheated  fat  is  not 
easily  digested  and,  for  some  people,  this  may  be  a  source  of 
difficulty.  Then,  so  little  liquid  is  used  with  the  flour  that, 
often,  part  of  the  starch  is  not  hydrated  at  all,  so  that  even 
after  baking,  it  is  not  really  changed  from  raw  starch. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  really  light  and  flaky  crust  is  the 
most  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  digestibility,  as 
well  as  from  that  of  taste. 


DOUGHNUTS  257 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  effect  does  water  have  on  flour? 

2.  What  effect  has  fat? 

3.  How  are  crusts  of  a  two-crust  pie  held  together  ? 

4.  Is  there  a  difference  in  the  oven  temperature  for  pies  filled 
with  cooked  and  uncooked  mixtures  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Compare  butter,  Crisco,  and  lard  as  shortening  in  pastry. 

6.  What  effect  has  temperature  during  mixing  and  before  baking 
on  the  resulting  pie  crust  ?     Why  is  this  ? 

7.  Why  is  pie  crust  difficult  to  digest  ? 

8.  Why  is   it   necessary   to   perforate    crust    for    single-crust 
pie? 

9.  Is  it  necessary  to  butter  a  pie-tin? 

10.  Can  unbaked  pastry  be  kept  over  from  one  day  to  the  next  ? 
How? 


DOUGHNUTS 

A.    Class  Experiments.     FATS. 

1.  Examine  the  following  fats:   butter,  oleomar- 
garine, lard,  cottonseed  oil,  olive  oil,  beef  fat, 
Crisco,  and  snowdrift.     Note  the  differences  in 
color  and  odor. 

2.  Find  the  temperatures  at  which  butter,   lard, 
and  Crisco  melt.     Place  two  tablespoons  of  each 
fat  in  small  beakers,  stand  in  warm  water,  insert 
a  thermometer,  and  note  the  temperature  at 
which  the  fat  melts. 

3.  Put  drops  of  olive  oil  and  oil  of  peppermint  on  a 
piece  of  paper  and  warm  them.    How  do  they 
differ? 

4.  To  determine   the    "cracking"    or    "burning 
point"  of  fats: 


258  FOOD   STUDY 

a.  Test  butter  with  blue  litmus  paper;   then 
place  about  two  teaspoons  of  butter  in  a 
small  evaporating  dish  and  heat  until  the 
first  appearance  of  smoke.     Determine  the 
temperature  of  the  fat.     Hold  a  piece  of 
moist  litmus  paper  in  the  fumes. 

b.  Repeat  with  lard,  olive  oil,  and  Crisco. 
In  which  fats  would  it  be  best  to  fry  ? 

5.  Heat  fat,  lard,  or  Crisco  to  355°  R,  and  then 
determine  in  how  many  seconds  a  small  piece  of 
bread  will  brown  in  the  fat.  Repeat  with  the 
fat  at  365°  F.,  and  at  385°  F.  What  is  the  effect 
on  the  bread  at  the  low  temperature?  Of  the 
last  two  temperatures,  which  would  be  better 
for  frying  uncooked  material  like  fritters? 
Material  already  cooked,  such  as  croquettes  ? 

B.  MAKE  DOUGHNUTS. 

Use  one-eighth  of  the  following  recipe  : 

1  c.  milk  2  tsp.  salt 

2  tbsp.  butter  -  4  eggs 

1  c.  sugar  4  c.  flour 

4  tsp.  baking  powder  1  tsp.  cinnamon 

|  tsp.  nutmeg 

C.  CLARIFY  THE  FAT  USED. 

Heat  the  fat  slowly  with  a  few  slices  of  raw  potatoes; 
then  strain  through  cheesecloth  placed  in  a  strainer. 


FATS 

Fat,  a  term  which  is  used  to  include  edible  oils  as  well, 
is,  like  carbohydrate,  a  source  of  energy  in  the  body. 
Weight  for  weight,  fats  furnish  the  body  with  two  and  a 
quarter  times  as  much  energy  as  do  the  carbohydrates. 


FATS 


259 


U.S.D«portmerit  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.C.True«  Director 


ft^poredby 

C.FLANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigation 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

mrm 

Water 


Phrtein  Fat          Carbohydrate*         Ash 

OLIVE  OIL 


BACON 


:67.4- 


3030  CALORIES    PER  POUND 

ater.13.2 


34-10  CALDHIK  PER   POUND 


4080  CALORIES  PER  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OP  FOODS  CONTAINING  MUCH  FAT 


260  FOOD  STUDY 

But  not  all  substances  which  are  ordinarily  spoken  of 
as  fats  are  really  pure  fat.  Olive  oil  and  lard  are  prac- 
tically pure  fat,  but  butter  contains  only  eighty-four  per 
cent  of  it,  the  rest  being  mostly  water,  curd,  and  mineral 
matter. 

Fats  are  usually  divided  into  two  classes,  —  volatile  and 
non-volatile  fats.  These  terms  are  somewhat  misleading, 
as  the  volatility  does  not  refer  to  the  fats  themselves,  but  to 
the  fatty  acids  which  enter  into  their  composition.  Most 
fats  are  chemical  compounds  of  glycerine  and  fatty  acids. 
Those  that  are  made  from  volatile  fatty  acids  have  low 
melting  points  and  are  more  digestible  than  most  of  the 
fats  of  the  other  class.  They  are  found  in  milk  fat,  hence 
also  in  cream  and  butter. 

The  non-volatile  fats  of  food  are  chiefly  three :  olein, 
palmitin,  and  stearin.  The  first  of  these  has  so  low  a 
melting  point  that  it  is  an  oil  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
Olive  and  cottonseed  oils  are  largely  composed  of  olein. 
Stearin  has  the  highest  melting  point  of  the  three,  and  so 
fats  like  suet,  which  is  largely  stearin,  are  fairly  firm. 
The  melting  point  of  palmitin  is  between  that  of  the  other 
two.  Most  of  the  fat  of  foods  is  a  mixture  of  these  non- 
volatile fats.  The  melting  point  of  some  of  them  is 
shown  in  the  following  table : 

Stearin      .  ... .. .,:.  140°  F.  Lard 86-102° 

Mutton  fat    .     .     .  116.5-123°  Butter 83-95° 

Palmitin    ....  113°  Olein Fluid 

Beef  fat     ....  107.5-122°  Olive  oil Fluid 

Bacon  f at .    .    .    .  103°  Cottonseed  oil    ...  Fhiid 

Fats  which  have  a  melting  point  of  110°  or  below,  seem 
to  be  digested  about  equally  well.  However,  the  eating  of 
fat  causes  the  food  to  remain  longer  in  the  stomach  and  so 
retards  the  processes  of  digestion.  In  some  cases  this  may 


FATS  261 

cause  digestive  disturbances  by  allowing  more  time  for 
the  decomposition  of  food  in  the  digestive  tract  through  the 
action  of  bacteria,  but  fat  itself  is  not  liable  to  objection- 
able decomposition  during  digestion.  Fat  which  has  been 
heated  to  too  high  a  temperature  is  much  more  liable 
to  cause  digestive  difficulties,  because,  apparently,  of  the 
presence  of  irritating  decomposition  products.  Hence 
it  is  necessary  in  selecting  a  fat  for  frying  to  consider  the 
temperatures  at  which  this  decomposition  takes  place. 
The  following  is  a  table  of  "cracking  points",  as  the  de- 
composition temperatures  are  often  called : 

Crisco 896°  F.        Lard 419-475° 

Olive  oil       ....    608-680°    Butter 365-428° 

Cottolene     ....    450° 

Fats  vary  greatly  in  cost,  olive  oil  being  expensive. 
Advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  lower  price  asked  for  it 
in  quantity.  (Buying  oil  in  a  small  bottle  is  very  extrava- 
gant.) Italian  oil  in  bulk  is  usually  cheaper  than  French 
oil.  Good  American  oil  is  manufactured  in  California. 

Butter  and  cream  are  also  expensive  sources  of  fat,  but 
they  are  very  desirable  for  children  and  invalids  on  account 
of  their  ease  of  digestion.  Bacon  fat  ranks  with  butter 
and  cream  both  in  digestibility  and  expense.  Fat  left 
from  the  frying  of  bacon  should  be  carefully  saved  for 
sauteing,  as  should  that  tried  out  from  the  fat  of  beef, 
veal,  pork,  and  chicken.  Even  the  fat  which  hardens  on 
soup  stock  can  be  used.  Gravies,  sauces,  cream  soups, 
and  gingerbread  may  all  be  made  with  such  fat,  and  vege- 
tables and  meat  may  be  sauted  in  them.  Mutton  fat *  has 
so  strong  a  flavor  that  it  is  usually  objected  to  on  this 
account. 

1  For  ways  of  utilizing  this  fat,  see  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Bulletin  No.  310,  page  11. 


262  FOOD   STUDY 

Yolks  of  eggs  are  one-third  fat  and  furnish  fat  in  a  very 
digestible  form. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Bulletin  No.  310.     "Digestibility  of 
Some  Animal  Fats." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  these  fats  obtained :   butter,  lard,    cottonseed   oil, 
olive  oil,  beef  fat,  lard,  Crisco  ? 

2.  What  does  each  cost  per  pound?    Are  fats  sufficiently  expensive 
foods  to  make  it  worth  while  to  consider  economy  in  their  use  ? 

3.  Suggest  good  opportunities  for  the  substitution  of  a  cheaper 
fat  for  a  more  expensive  one.     For  example,  would  it  be  better  to  use 
lard  in  gingersnaps  or  sugar  cookies  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  digestibility  of  fats. 

5.  What  care  must  be  taken  in  frying  food  to  make  it  as  digestible 
as  possible? 

6.  Why  is  fat-soaked  food  indigestible  ? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  sauteing  and  frying  ? 

8.  Why  does  the  cooking  of  slices  of  raw  potato  in  fat  clarify  it  ? 

9.  Why  is  deep-fat  frying  dangerous,  especially  over  an  open  flame  ? 

10.  Why  should  fried  foods  be  drained  on  unglazed  paper  ? 

11.  Why  should  foods  to  be  fried  be  as  dry  as  possible? 

12.  How  is  soap  manufactured  ? 


LVI 

MILK   FATS 

BUTTER 

WHIPPED  CREAM 
PHILADELPHIA  ICE  CREAM 

A.    Class  Experiments.     CREAM  AND  BUTTER. 

1.  Examine  a  drop  of  cream  under  the  microscope. 
Note  the  globules  of  fat.     Compare  with  drops 


CREAM    AND    BUTTER  263 

of  whole  and  of  skimmed  milk  examined  in  the 
same  way. 

2.  Chill  a  portion  of  cream  and  whip  1  until  stiff. 
Reserve  and  finish  as  whipped-cream  pudding. 

3.  Warm   another   portion   and   whip   as   above. 
Explain  the  difference  in  the  result. 

4.  To  make  butter. 

Shake  a  weighed  and  measured  amount  of  ripened 
cream  in  a  preserve  jar,  until  the  fat  separates. 
Add  ice.  Collect  the  lumps  into  a  mass  and 
plunge  them  into  ice  water  and  work  out  all 
the  buttermilk.  Weigh.  Add  salt  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one-half  ounce  to  every  pound  of 
butter.  Compute  the  cost  of  this  butter  and 
compare  it  with  the  market  price. 

B.  PREPARE  WHIPPED-CREAM  PUDDING. 

Beat  into  whipped  cream,  crumbs  rolled  from  dried 
macaroons,  or  from  gingersnaps,  or  dried  cake,  or  stir  in 
dates  or  figs  cut  into  small  pieces.  Sweeten  and  flavor 
as  desired.  Candied  cherries  may  be  used  as  decorations. 

C.  PREPARE  PHILADELPHIA  ICE  CREAM. 

Add  flavoring  and  sweetening  to  cream  and  freeze,  stirring. 

Use  f  c.  cream ;  add  2  tsp.  sugar  and  J  tsp.  vanilla ;  or 
2  tsp.  sugar  and  2  tsps.  ground  macaroons ;  or  melt  1  tsp. 
grated  chocolate,  add  1  tbsp.  sugar  and  gradually  stir 
in  the  cream ;  or  add  fresh  or  canned  fruits  and  sweeten  to 
taste. 

BUTTER 

It  is  curious  to  think  that  butter,  now  considered  such 
an  indispensable  article  of  diet,  was  not  used  at  all  in 

1  The  efficiency  of  different  cream  whippers  may  be  tried  out. 
Some  will  whip  the  cream  from  the  top  of  an  ordinary  milk  bottle. 


264  FOOD  STUDY 

ancient  times.  Even  the  butter  used  in  the  Middle  Ages 
is  said  to  have  been  semi-liquid  and  a  very  inferior  article. 
In  modern  times  butter-making  has  been  a  household 
industry  until  very  recently.  The  first  creamery  in  the 
United  States  was  built  about  1861.  Now  such  establish- 
ments are  common,  and  are  often  owned  by  associations 
of  farmers.  Sometimes  the  milk  itself  is  sent  to  the 
creamery,  in  other  cases  only  the  cream.  The  milk  or 
cream,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  usually  tested  and  paid  for 
on  the  basis  of  the  fat  content.  More  and  more,  cream  is 
being  pasteurized  before  ripening.  This  kills  any  disease- 
producing  germs,  as  well  as  most  of  the  others,  and  gives 
a  more  uniform  product  and  one  which  keeps  well.  The 
ripening  is  accomplished  by  the  addition  of  skimmed 
milk  which  is  in  a  state  of  active  fermentation.  The 
mixture  is  kept  at  about  70°  R,  then  it  is  colored  and 
churned.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  so  accustomed  are 
we  to  colored  butter,  that  while  the  coloring  of  most 
foods  is  forbidden  unless  so  labeled,  the  coloring  of  butter 
is  permitted.  The  washing  of  the  butter  after  churning 
is  an  important  part  of  the  process ;  carelessness  means  the 
failure  to  remove  enough  of  the  buttermilk,  which  gives  a 
streaked  butter  of  poor  keeping  qualities.  Butter  made 
on  the  farm  often  fails  to  be  good  because  of  insufficient 
working.  Salting  not  only  gives  flavor,  but  helps  in  the 
keeping  of  the  butter,  partly  by  aiding  the  removal  of  the 
buttermilk.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  butter  varies, 
but  more  than  sixteen  per  cent  is  usually  illegal ;  the  aver- 
age amount  is  about  twelve  per  cent. 

Butter  which  is  kept  too  long  becomes  rancid,  that  is, 
of  poor  flavor  and  odor.  This  rancidity  may  be  from  two 
causes,  the  more  common  of  which  is  not  the  decomposition 
of  the  fat,  but  the  spoiling  of  the  protein  present  in  the 
curd.  Renovated  or  process  butter  is  butter  which  has 


BUTTER  265 

been  reworked  after  becoming  more  or  less  rancid.  The 
butter  fat  is  removed  from  the  rest  by  melting,  and  air  is 
blown  through  to  remove  any  bad  odor ;  then  it  is  mixed 
with  fresh  cream  or  milk,  and  churned.  Some  states 
restrict  the  sale  of  this  butter,  although  they  permit  the 
sale  of  poor  butter. 

Many  housewives  seem  to  be  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
poor  tasting  butter  can  be  renovated  fairly  well  at  home 
by  merely  working  the  butter,  so  as  to  wash  it  thoroughly, 
in  a  succession  of  bowls  of  cold  water. 

Oleomargarine  or  butterine  has  one  advantage  over 
butter,  although  it  lacks  the  fine  flavor.  It  is  cheaper. 
It  is  made  by  churning  other-than-butter  fats  with  milk, 
or  milk  and  butter,  or  milk  and  cream.  Soft  beef  fat  and 
neutral  lard  are  often  used  and  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
cottonseed  oil,  cocoanut  fat,  or  peanut  oil.  The  butter 
makers  have  succeeded  in  having  a  tax  of  ten  cents  a  pound 
placed  on  colored  butterine,  which  makes  the  price  of  the 
product  too  high  for  it  to  compete  with  butter.  The  tax 
on  uncolored  oleomargarine  is  only  a  quarter  of  a  cent  a 
pound.  As  many  people  object  to  "colorless  butter",  fats 
which  have  a  natural  yellow  color  are  used  to  give  a  colored 
product  and  yet  avoid  the  excessive  tax.  Unfortunately 
the  butterine  made  with  the  yellow  fats  does  not  seem  to 
keep  as  well  as  the  other. 

Oleomargarine  is  a  perfectly  clean,  wholesome  food  and 
should  be  more  widely  used  than  it  is.  Many  people 
cannot  distinguish  the  difference  in  flavor  between  it  and 
butter,  especially  for  any  use  except  with  bread,  and  the 
flavor  is  decidedly  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  poor  butter. 
Its  use  in  Europe  is  much  more  extensive  than  in  this 
country. 

Buttermilk  may  contain  not  more  than  0.2  per  cent  of 
fat,  whereas  normal  milk  contains  about  four  per  cent. 


266  FOOD  STUDY 

This  makes  it  evident  that  buttermilk  is  less  hearty  than 
whole  milk,  although  there  is  a  common  belief  that  the 
contrary  is  true.  Such  milk  is  valued  not  only  for  its 
flavor  and  perhaps  for  its  increased  digestibility,  but  also 
for  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  present.  Some  authorities 
hold  that  these  bacteria  are  carried  into  the  small  intestine 
and  keep  in  check  the  growth  of  those  bacteria  which  cause 
putrefaction.  Much  of  the  milk  sold  as  buttermilk  is 
really  fermented  skim  milk  containing  perhaps  only  0.1  per 
cent  of  fat.  The  greater  digestibility  of  fermented  milk 
seems  to  lie  in  the  finely  divided  condition  of  the  protein. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  384.  "  Whipped 

Cream. "     "  Farm  Butter  Making." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  69.      "Pasteurized  Cream." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  237.     "Care  of  Cream  on  the  Farm." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  131.     "Household  Test  for  the  Detection 

of  Oleomargarine  and  Renovated  Butter." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  form  is  the  fat  in  milk? 

2.  Why  does  fat  sold  as  cream  command  a  higher  price  than  the 
same  sold  as  butter  ? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  creamery  and  dairy  butter? 
What  is  "country  butter"? 

4.  What  different  butters  are  sold  in  your  stores  and  how  do  the 
prices  vary  at  the  present  time  ?    Compare  with  the  cost  of  oleomar- 
garine. 

5.  What  are  the  variations  in  price  of  butter  in  your  stores  during 
the  year  ?    What  causes  the  variation  ? 

6.  What  is  the  average  percentage  composition  of  butter?  of 
cream  ? 

7.  What  is  rancid  butter  ? 

8.  When  butter  shows  whitish  streaks  through  it,  what  is  the  cause  ? 

9.  Why  does  whipped  cream  usually  sour  more  quickly  than  ordi- 
nary cream  ? 


CUSTARDS 


267 


LVII 
CUSTARDS 

CUSTARD  ICE  CREAM 

A.    PREPARE  BOILED  CUSTARD. 

Use  one-fourth  of  the  following  proportions : 


Eoo 

MILK 

SUGAR 

FLAVORING 

1. 

} 

1  C. 

1  tbsp. 

\  tsp.  vanilla  and  a  few  grains  of  salt 

2. 

1 

1  C. 

1  tbsp. 

£  tsp.  vanilla  and  a  few  grains  of  salt 

3. 

2 

1  C. 

1  tbsp. 

|  tsp.  vanilla  and  a  few  grains  of  salt 

Beat  the  egg  slightly,  add  milk  and  sugar,  and  cook 
over  hot  water,  stirring  carefully  until  the  custard  coats 
the  spoon.  Flavor  and  cool.  Compare  the  various  con- 
sistencies obtained.  Which  is  best? 

B.    PREPARE  BAKED  CUSTARDS. 

Use  one-fourth  of  the  following  proportions,  and  the 
amount  of  egg  determined  in  A. 


EGG 

MILK 

SUGAR 

FLAVORING 

1. 

? 

1  e. 

1     tbsp. 

as  preferred 

2. 

? 

1  c. 

H  tbsp. 

as  preferred 

3. 

? 

1  c. 

3    tbsp. 

as  preferred 

Use  scalded  milk,  otherwise  mix  as  in  A.  Wet  an 
earthen  or  china  mold  and  pour  in  the  mixture.  Set  in  a 
dish  of  water  and  bake,  until  when  tested  with  a  knife,  the 


268  FOOD   STUDY 

blade  comes  out  clean.     What  effect  has  the  large  amount 
of  sugar  on  the  consistency  ? 

C.    PREPARE  FROZEN  CUSTARD  OR  FRENCH  ICE  CREAM.1 
I  II 

1  c.  milk  1  c.  thin  cream 

6  tbsp.  sugar  |  tbsp.  vanilla 

legg 

A  pinch  of  salt 

Make  a  boiled  custard  from  I ;  cool,  combine  with  II, 
and  freeze. 

MILK 

Milk  is  of  great  importance  as  a  food,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  in  the  United  States  the  per  capita  consumption  is 
over  half  a  pint  a  day.  Because  it  is  so  universally  used  and 
forms  so  large  a  part  of  the  diet  of  children  and  invalids,  most 
states  have  set  standards  to  which  the  milk  sold  must  con- 
form. These  standards  are  not  identical  in  every  state, 
but  are  more  or  less  similar.  The  standards  often  regu- 
late the  minimum  amount  of  fat  and  of  total  solids  (or  of 
total  solids,  not  fat)  which  the  milk  must  furnish.  They 
are  intended  to  prevent  skimming  and  watering.  The 
average  composition  of  milk  is  estimated  to  be : 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

Fat 4.0  per  cent. 

Protein 3.3  per  cent. 

Water 87.0  per  cent. 

Carbohydrate 5.0  per  cent. 

Ash 0.7  per  cent. 

Total  solids  not  fat 8.9  per  cent. 

The  fat  and  protein  content  of  different  milks  vary  much 
more  than  do  the  other  constituents.    The  fat  is  sometimes 

1  In  French  ice  cream  only  the  yolks  of  eggs  are  used.    Some 
flour  may  be  substituted  for  egg,  if  preferred. 


MILK 


269 


US  Deportment  oF  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.C True  director 


Prepared  fay 

CrTLANGWORTHY 

Expert  h  Chorgeof  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


amn  Lnmo 

Fat         Carbohydrate*        Ash 


Value 
In.  Equals 
Calories 


WHOLE  MILK 


SKIM  MILK 


ater:87.0 


atenSCXS 


rates:  5.0 


3.3  F«bQ3L 

AsbO. 


C  D 

Fuei.  VAiue:310  CALORICS  PER  POUND  FUEL  vAiuc:165  CAumcs  PCR  POUND 


BUTTERMILK 


CREAM 


ater:91.0 


.-3.0  Fat:1 

Carboh>ate3-.4..8  A 

D 

FuEL  VALUEilGO  CALORIES  PER  POUND  FuEL 


CALORIES  PER  POUND 


COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 


270  FOOD  STUDY 

as  low  as  three  per  cent,  but  may  even  be  six  per  cent.  The 
protein  varies  less,  from  about  three  per  cent  to  four  per 
cent.  The  amounts  called  for  in  the  various  state  stand- 
ards run  from  two  and  a  half  per  cent  of  fat  in  Rhode 
Island  to  three  and  a  half  per  cent  in  a  number  of  states ; 
the  total  solids  not  far  from  eight  and  a  half  to  nine  per 
cent.  Occasionally  a  state  requires  a  greater  percentage 
of  fat  in  summer  than  in  winter.  It  may  readily  be  seen 
that  these  requirements  are  reasonable  and  not  excessive. 

Because  milk  sours  readily,  there  is  a  strong  temptation 
to  add  preservatives.  This  practice  is  forbidden  by  federal 
law  for  milk  shipped  from  state  to  state,  and  is  usually 
also  forbidden  by  each  state  for  milk  sold  locally.  Such 
use  of  preservatives  is  less  common  now  than  formerly  as 
a  result  of  these  laws,  and  is  more  likely  to  occur  in  small 
towns  without  milk  inspectors  than  in  large  cities.  Form- 
aldehyde and  borax  or  boric  acid  are  the  more  common 
preservatives  used,  and  they  are  not  at  all  difficult  of 
detection  by  chemical  analysis.  Most  state  food  labora- 
tories will  analyze,  free  of  charge,  milk  sent  in  by  the  con- 
sumer. If  the  milk  being  used  does  not  sour  so  rapidly  as 
would  seem  natural,  it  is  wise  to  send  it  for  analysis.  The 
danger  from  preservatives  is  not  great,  but  they  are  liable 
to  interfere  with  digestion. 

A  much  greater  danger  from  milk  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
is  so  excellent  a  medium  for  the  growth  of  bacteria.  It 
must,  therefore,  be  guarded  rigidly  from  contamination. 
To  begin  with,  it  must  come  from  a  healthy  cow.  As  a 
great  danger  lies  in  milk  from  cows  which  have  tuberculosis, 
it  is  wise  to  have  the  cows  tested  with  tuberculin.  Since 
the  milk  must  be  protected  from  dust  and  dirt,  the  adja- 
cent parts  of  the  cow,  as  well  as  the  udder,  should  be 
cleaned  before  milking.  The  stable  must  be  clean,  well- 
drained,  light,  and  airy.  A  special  washable  over-garment, 


MILK  271 

worn  only  at  the  time  of  milking,  should  be  used  by  the 
milker,  and  his  hands  should  be  freshly  washed.  Machines 
for  milking  which  give  good  service  are  now  obtainable. 
It  is  of  importance  that  the  pails  be  sterilized  and  covered 
or  "hooded."  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn,  it  should  be 
removed  from  the  stable  to  a  separate  milk-room  used 
only  for  this  purpose.  Not  only  must  this  room  be  light 
and  clean,  but  it  should  be  screened  against  flies.  It 
should  be  unnecessary  to  strain  the  milk.  If  this  is  done, 
it  should  be  poured  through  sterilized  cloth  or  cotton. 
It  is  important  that  the  milk  be  cooled  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible and  kept  at  a  low  temperature,  since  warmth  so 
greatly  stimulates  the  increase  of  bacteria. 

Certified  milk  is  often  obtainable.  This  means  milk 
which  is  so  handled  that  it  can  be  guaranteed  to  be  of  an 
unusually  good  quality.  It  means  inspection  not  only  of 
the  milk  itself,  from  time  to  time,  both  as  to  chemical  com- 
position and  bacterial  count,  but  also  supervision  of  the  herd 
and  of  the  whole  process  of  production.  Such  milk  is 
of  necessity  costly,  since  this  inspection  must  be  paid  for. 

Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  which  has  been  heated  to  a 
temperature  sufficiently  high  to  kill  any  disease-producing 
bacteria  which  may  be  present.  Usually  the  milk  is  heated 
to  140°-145°  F.  and  kept  at  this  temperature  for  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes,  then  cooled  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Pas- 
teurization of  milk  is  often  required  by  the  health  authori- 
ties for  market  milk  which  does  not  come  from  tuberculin- 
tested  cows.  The  process  of  pasteurization  changes  the 
taste  less  and  brings  about  fewer  changes  in  the  substances 
present  than  does  sterilization. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  363.    "Use  of  Milk  as  Food." 


272  FOOD  STUDY 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  413.     "Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Useln  the 

Home." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  457.     "Production  of  Sanitary  Milk." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  227  or  273.     "Clean  Milk." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  237.     "Care  of  Cream  on  the  Farm." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Can  milk  be  bought  in  your  stores,  in  "bulk"  as  well  as  in 
bottles  ?    Which  will  you  prefer  ?    Why  ? 

2.  What  do  you  have  to  pay  for  milk  ?    Does  this  vary  with  the 
season  ?    Is  more  than  one  grade  of  milk  sold  ? 

3.  What  is  the  standard  for  milk  in  your  state  ?  in  your  city  ? 

4.  Will  your  laws  allow  the  sale  of  skimmed  milk  ?    If  so,  what 
does  it  cost  ?    Does  its  food  value  justify  this  price  ? 

5.  What  precaution  will  you  take  in  caring  for  milk  in  the  home  ? 

6.  Why  will  scalding  postpone  the  souring  of  milk  ? 

7.  Describe  a  process  for  pasteurization  of  milk  at  home. 

8.  If  you  are  not  sure  of  the  sanitary  quality  of  your  milk,  why 
will  you  recommend  pasteurization  ?     Why  is  this  especially  neces- 
sary in  milk  for  babies  and  little  children  ? 

9.  For  what  purpose  are  eggs  used  in  custards  ? 

10.  Why  are  the  eggs  beaten  only  slightly  for  custards?      Why 
beaten  at  all? 

11.  How  would  the  use  of  flour  or  cornstarch  instead  of  some  of  the 
eggs  in  custard  affect  the  price  ?    Which  of  the  two  would  you  prefer 
to  substitute  and  why? 

LVIII 

ACIDS   AND   MILK 

CREAM  OF  TOMATO  SOUP 
LEMON  MILK  SHERBET 
A.     Class  Experiments.     ACIDS  AND  MILK. 
The  possible  effect  of  heat  and  acids  on  sweet  milk 
in  making  cream  of  tomato  soup. 

1.  Heat  a  little  milk  which  is  sour,  but  not  separated. 
Note  the  result. 


CREAM   OF  TOMATO   SOUP  273 

2.  Mix  a  tablespoon  of  tomato  juice  with  one  of  milk, 
and  heat.     Note  the  result. 

3.  Add  tomato  juice,  drop  by  drop,  to  a  little  milk,  stir- 
ring, and  see  how  much  juice  can  be  added  before  the 
milk  separates.     Then  reverse  the  experiment,  add- 
ing the  milk  to  the  tomato  juice. 

4.  Make  a  quarter  of  a  cup  of  medium  white  sauce, 
omitting  the  salt,  and  add,  stirring  slowly,  a  quarter 
of  a  cup  of  hot  tomato  juice.     Season. 

5.  Compare  the  flavor  of  (4)  with  soups  made  by  adding 
a  saltspoon  of  soda  to  the  tomato. 

Give  the  reasons  for  each  of  the  following  precautions 
in  the  making  of  cream  of  tomato  soup : 

1.  Be  sure  that  the  milk  is  perfectly  sweet. 

2.  Thicken  either  the  tomato  juice  or  the  milk.     Have 
each  hot,  and  do  not  heat  further  after  combining ; 
or  combine  cold,  and  heat  only  to  the  serving  point. 

3.  Omit  salt  until  ready  to  serve. 

4.  Pour  the  tomato  into  the  milk. 

5.  Avoid  letting  the  soup  stand  after  it  is  made. 

6.  If  the  milk  is  old,  or  the  tomato  juice  very  acid,  or  the 
soup  must  stand  (as  in  serving  a  large  number  of 
people),  use  soda. 

B.  CREAM  OF  TOMATO  SOUP. 

Prepare  a  half  cup  of  cream  of  tomato  soup,  seasoning 
by  heating  onion,  or  cloves,  or  bay  leaf  in  the  milk. 
Remove,  before  serving. 

C.  PREPARE  LEMON  MILK  SHERBET. 

Make  in  large  amounts  in  a  freezer,  or  stir  and  freeze 
in  a  tin  cup. 

LEMON  MILK  SHERBET. 

4  c.  milk  1|  c.  sugar 

Juice  of  three  lemons 


274  FOOD  STUDY 

Combine  and  freeze.  Curdling  will  not  affect  the  qual- 
ity after  freezing. 

MILK  (continued) 

The  amount  of  fat  in  milk  varies  with  the  breed  of  cow 
as  well  as  with  the  feed  given.  Milk  from  Jersey  cows  is 
high  in  fat ;  from  Holstein  cows,  low.  Milk  from  the  latter 
breed  is  considered  best  for  babies.  While  the  amount  of 
fat  in  milk  averages  four  per  cent  by  weight,  in  the  cream 
it  averages  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent.  The  fat  of  milk 
is  already  in  an  emulsified  form,  so,  like  the  fat  of  egg-yolk, 
it  is  considered  especially  digestible.  Babies,  however, 
often  have  difficulty  in  digesting  much  of  it.  This  fat  is 
peculiar  in  containing  a  relatively  high  amount  of  the 
volatile  fats  and  less  olein  than  is  present  in  most  fats  used 
as  food.  It  also  contains  a  very  small  amount  of  stearin 
and  a  fairly  large  amount  of  olein. 

At  least  three-fourths  of  the  protein  in  milk  is  casein. 
Some  albumin  is  also  present,  as  well  as  other  proteins  in 
much  smaller  amounts.  These  proteins  are  of  high  nutri- 
tive value.  An  unusually  high  percentage  of  them  is 
digested  and  absorbed,  and  they  do  not  readily  undergo 
intestinal  putrefaction.  The  percentage  of  protein  in  milk 
is  much  greater  than  in  mothers'  milk.  To  remedy  this, 
milk  for  feeding  to  babies  is  diluted  with  water,  after 
which  more  sugar  is  added. 

Sugar  of  milk  is  the  carbohydrate  present  in  milk.  This 
sugar  is  less  sweet  than  cane  and  is  supposed  to  be  much 
better  for  babies,  because  it  is  less  liable  to  irritate  the 
stomach.  As,  however,  cheap  grades  of  milk  sugar  are 
impure,  and  the  pure  sugar  is  exceedingly  expensive,  many 
doctors  recommend  the  addition  of  cane  sugar  to  the 
diluted  milk  in  baby-feeding. 

The  mineral  elements  in  milk  need  special  mention. 


MILK  275 

Calcium  and  phosphorus  are  present  in  unusual  amounts. 
The  iron  present  seems  to  be  in  a  form  which  is  most 
readily  assimilated,  thus  making  up  somewhat  for  the 
small  quantity  present.  Babies  are  born  with  relatively 
more  iron  in  their  bodies  than  adults  have.  This  seems 
to  be  nature's  way  of  assuring  them  a  plentiful  supply. 
Diluted  cows'  milk  furnishes  less  iron  than  mothers'  milk, 
and  so  babies  which  are  fed  artificially  have  other  food 
added  to  their  diet  earlier  than  those  wrhich  are  nursed. 

Boiling  milk  seems  to  bring  about  certain  changes  in  the 
substances  present.  The  protein  is  undoubtedly  changed, 
for  such  milk  fails  to  clot  with  rennin,  while  raw  milk 
clots  readily.  The  boiling  may  also  affect  the  vitamines 
present.  This  may  be  an  important  question  when  milk 
is  used  as  the  sole  food.  Boiled  milk  does  not  seem  to  be 
less  digestible  than  raw  milk. 

When  milk  sours,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  present  change 
the  milk  sugar  to  acid.  The  acid  finally  precipitates  the 
protein  and  the  milk  "clabbers."  Milk  containing  too 
little  acid  to  bring  about  this,  may  separate  when  heated. 
If  salt  is  present,  this  is  even  more  liable  to  happen. 
Herein  lies  the  difficulty  of  making  cream  of  tomato  soup 
without  neutralizing  the  acid  with  soda,  but  the  flavor  is 
superior  if  soda  is  not  used. 

The  important  thing  to  remember  in  connection  with 
milk  is  its  value  in  the  diet.  A  reasonable  amount  should 
be  included  even  by  those  living  at  low  cost.  Sherman 
tells  us  that  "  those  who  are  able  to  spend  30  to  40  cents  per 
person  per  day  for  food  are  practising  true  economy  when 
they  buy  and  use  liberally  the  best  milk  obtainable,  even  at 
a  price  of  from  15  to  20  cents  per  quart."  Also,  "in  no 
other  way  can  the  food  habits  no$  prevailing,  especially 
in  the  cities,  be  so  certainly  and  economically  improved 
as  by  a  more  liberal  use  of  milk." 


276  FOOD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 
As  in  the  previous  lesson. 

Journal  of  Home  Economics.     Vol.  VIII,  pp.  429-432.     "A  Study 
of  Condensed  and  Evaporated  Milk." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  scalding  milk?    How  can  you  easily  tell 
when  it  is  scalded  ? 

2.  Why  is  milk  usually  heated  in  a  double  boiler?    When  may 
this  be  done  over  a  direct  flame  ? 

3.  Would  you  infer  that   acid    is   present   in    chocolate,    since 
chocolate  fudge  is  so  liable  to  separate  in  cooking  ?    Does  the  separa- 
tion affect  the  final  product  ? 

4.  What  two  classes  of  condensed  milk  are  there  ?    How  are  they 
prepared  ?    What  do  they  cost  ?    How  does  this  cost  compare  with 
that  of  ordinary  milk  ? 

LIX 

CURD   OF   MILK 
COTTAGE  CHEESE  —  JUNKET  CUSTARD 
A.    Class  Experiments. 
THE  EFFECT  OF  HEAT  ON  SOUR  MILK. 

1.  Test  milk,  sour  enough  to  have  clabbered,  with  blue 
litmus  paper.     Cut  a  little  of  the  milk  with  a  knife 
and  strain  some  of  the  whey  through  cheesecloth. 
Save  both  curd  and  whey  for  comparison. 

2.  Boil  half  a  cup  of  the  milk  for  three  minutes.     Strain 
through  a  cheesecloth  and  compare  with  the  curd 
obtained  in  (1),  (3),  and  (4).     Reserve  the  whey. 

3.  Heat  half  a  cup  of  the  milk  in  a  double  boiler  until  it 
separates.     Strain  through  a  cheesecloth. 

4.  Pour  half  a  cup  of  boiling  water  into  half  a  cup  of  the 
sour  milk.     Take  the  temperature  of  the  mixture. 
Strain  the  curd  as  before. 


FOOD  FOR  CHILDREN  277 

5.  Compare  the  whey  of  unheated  milk  with  the  whey 
obtained  by  heating,  and  decide  why  heat  is  used  in  sepa- 
rating. Examine  the  texture  of  the  curds  and  determine 
the  effect  of  great  heat.  Which  methods  of  separation 
should  be  used  in  making  cottage  cheese  ? 

B.  PREPARE  COTTAGE  CHEESE. 
Season  and  serve  as  a  salad. 

Class  Experiments. 

C.  1.  To  one  fourth  of  a  cup  of  milk,  add  half  a  tea- 

spoon of  rennin  *  solution.     Boil,  and  set  aside 
in  a  mold,  until  cool. 

2.  To  one  fourth  of  a  cup  of  lukewarm  milk,  add 
half  a  teaspoon  of  rennin  solution.  When  cool, 
compare  with  (1). 

D.  JUNKET  CUSTARD. 

Make  a  recipe  for  a  "Junket  Custard",  using  choco- 
late, caramel,  or  vanilla,  as  flavoring,  and  prepare  the 
custard. 

FOOD  FOR  CHILDREN 

The  subject  of  food  for  children  is  an  important  one, 
for  the  digestions  of  little  children  are  easily  upset. 
Failure  in  obtaining  a  properly  balanced  diet  means 
failure  in  proper  development  and  growth. 

Certain  dishes  are  excluded  from  the  children's  bill-of- 
fare  for  various  reasons.  Coffee  and  tea  should  not  be 
allowed,  because  they  are  nerve  stimulants.  Even  cocoa 
as  a  regular  drink  is  of  questionable  value,  for  it,  too,  con- 
tains a  stimulating  principle.  Hot  water  with  milk,  or 
cereal  coffee,  will  furnish  hot  drinks  when  called  for,  but 

1  Rennin  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  a  junket  tablet  in  two 
tablespoons  of  water. 


278  FOOD  STUDY 

all  children  should  be  encouraged  to  drink  plenty  of  milk. 
A  quart  of  milk  a  day  for  each  child  should  be  provided. 
This  does  not  mean  that  such  an  amount  must  necessarily 
be  drunk,  because,  when  preferred,  some  of  it  may  be 
served  in  soup,  in  white  sauce,  or  in  simple  puddings. 
Secondly,  foods  containing  much  fat  are  excluded.  This 
means  pastry,  fried  foods,  rich  cake,  and  rich  sauces, 
because  they  are  difficult  of  digestion.  For  the  same  rea- 
son, pork,  the  fat  of  meat,  and  rich  fish  like  salmon  and 
mackerel,  are  forbidden.  Spices,  condiments,  and  strong 
acids  such  as  vinegar,  are  also  better  omitted,  as  are  raw 
foods  containing  much  cellulose,  as  celery,  cabbage,  and 
radishes. 

Almost  any  vegetable  can  be  given,  if  it  is  prepared 
properly  for  the  child.  Little  children  are  likely  to 
swallow  with  insufficient  chewing,  so  carrots,  parsnips, 
turnips,  onions,  peas,  beans,  and  corn  may  be  difficult  of 
digestion  for  them.  But  these  same  vegetables  rubbed 
through  a  sieve  and  served  as  puree  or  a  cream  soup  are 
excellent.  The  difficulty  of  chewing  also  makes  veal  too 
difficult  of  digestion.  Bananas  and  cheese  are  so  readily 
swallowed  in  lumps  that  the  form  in  which  these  are  fur- 
nished should  be  considered.  The  mixing  of  macaroni  or 
rice  with  a  little  cheese  affords  a  satisfactory  way  in  which 
to  serve  the  latter.  Bananas  as  well  as  apples  can  be  given, 
even  to  very  little  children,  if  they  are  scraped  or  baked. 
Children  are  especially  susceptible  to  infection,  so  raw 
fruits  must  be  clean.  Berries  bought  in  market  are  almost 
impossible  to  clean  properly,  and  so  are  safer  cooked. 
Figs  and  dates  can  be  washed  in  hot  water  and  sterilized 
in  the  oven. 

Sugar  may  be  given  in  moderate  amounts,  but  it  is  much 
better  not  to  stimulate  the  child's  taste  for  it.  Don't 
teach  the  baby  to  eat  sugar.  When  given  at  all,  as  candy 


FOOD  FOR  CHILDREN  279 

or  otherwise,  it  should  be  at  the  end  of  a  meal.  The 
objections  to  its  use  on  cereals  is  that  the  child  should  be 
led  to  eat  only  because  he  is  hungry,  and  not  because  he 
likes  the  taste  of  a  special  dish.  Sugar  is  much  more  apt 
to  be  irritating  when  taken  on  an  empty  stomach.  More- 
over, when  eaten  last,  it  is  less  apt  to  interfere  with  the 
appetite  for  other  foods. 

Many  authorities  say  that  children  are  better  off  with- 
out meat  until  they  are  eight  or  nine  years  old.  There  is 
no  question  that  many  children  are  given  meat  in  too 
large  amounts.  As  Miss  Hunt  points  out,  a  child  of  even 
six  to  nine  years  of  age  would  have  sufficient  protein  in  his 
daily  diet  from  one  egg,  three  glasses  of  milk,  and  what  he 
will  secure  from  the  bread,  cereals,  and  vegetables  which 
the  normal  child  can  be  depended  upon  to  eat. 

Children  should  be  trained  in  eating  habits  just  as  much 
as  in  others.  Many  make  the  mistake  of  giving  the  little 
child  only  soft,  mushy  foods,  and  then  wonder  that  he 
does  not  learn  to  chew.  Crusts  of  bread  and  hard  crackers 
are  excellent  educators  for  children  beginning  to  eat. 

Most  mothers  are  in  a  hurry  and  feed  the  child  too 
rapidly.  The  next  spoonful  is  waiting  at  his  lips  before 
he  has  swallowed  the  first.  So  the  children  learn  to  eat 
too  rapidly.  The  older  child  is  too  often  forbidden  to  talk 
at  the  table,  so  even  that  interference  with  rapid  eating 
is  done  away  with.  It  is  wise  not  to  excuse  children  from 
the  table  when  they  have  finished,  but  to  require  them  to 
stay  until  the  end  of  the  meal.  The  child  in  a  hurry  to 
return  to  play  will  eat  much  more  rapidly  if  he  knows  he 
can  go  when  he  has  finished  eating. 

Children  should  be  trained  to  like  all  kinds  of  food. 
If,  as  little  children,  they  are  fed  vegetables  in  purees  and 
soups,  the  difficulty  which  often  occurs  in  teaching  a  child 
to  like  them  will  be  avoided.  Much  can  be  accomplished 


280  FOOD  STUDY 

by  suggestion.  If  the  older  people  do  not  eat  all  kinds  of 
food,  or  if  a  child's  dislikes  are  dwelt  upon,  difficulties  will 
arise.  The  assumption  that  the  flavor  of  a  food  is  deli- 
cious and  that  the  child  will  like  it,  will  go  far. 

Water-drinking  is  another  habit  which  may  need  atten- 
tion. Food  should  not  be  washed  down,  nor  should  the 
water  be  iced ;  otherwise,  water  at  meals  is  desirable,  as  is 
also  water  between  meals.  Most  adults  drink  too  little 
water. 

Children  should  not  eat  whenever  they  are  hungry,  but 
at  regular  times.  Lunches  between  meals  should  be 
provided  regularly  for  little  children.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  food  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  digested 
quickly,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  following  meal. 
It  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  tempt  only  the 
hungry  child  to  eat. 

The  amount  of  food  required  by  children  at  various 
stages  of  their  growth  is  shown  in  a  table  in  the  Appendix. 
The  total  amount  is  considered  a  minimum  rather  than  an 
outside  limit.  A  child  with  a  natural,  unspoiled  appetite, 
fed  simple,  nourishing  food,  can  safely  be  trusted  not  to 
overeat. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  712.     "  School 

Lunches." 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.     Bulletin  No.  403.     "The  Daily  Meals 

of  School  Children,"  by  Caroline  L.  Hunt. 
Teachers'  College  Bulletin.      "The  Feeding  of  Young  Children," 

by  Mary  Swartz  Rose, 

Teachers'  College  Bulletin.      "Food  for  School  Boys  and  Girls," 
by  Mary  Swartz  Rose. 

QUESTIONS- 

1.  Plan  a  series  of  meals  for  three  days  for  a  child  of  three,  of  six, 
and  of  ten. 


CHEESE  PUDDING  281 

2.  Plan  five  school  lunches  for  a  child  of  ten. 

3.  Sum  up  the  principal  points  concerned  in  the  feeding  of  children. 

LX 
CHEESE 

CHEESE  PUDDING 
WELSH  RABBIT 

A.  Class  Experiments. 

EFFECT  OF  EXTREME  HEAT  ON  CHEESE. 

1.  Heat  a  small  piece  of  cheese  for  some  time  in  a  hot 
frying  pan.     Allow  it  to  cool,  and  examine.     What 
two  constituents  do  you  find  present?    What  is  the 
effect  of  extreme  heat  on  protein  ?  on  fat  ? 

2.  Heat  another  small  piece  of    cheese  in  a  double 
boiler  (or  over  water).     After  the  cheese  is  melted, 
cool  it,  and  compare  with  (1). 

What  precautions  must  be  taken  in  cooking  cheese  ? 

B.  PREPARE  CHEESE  PUDDING  —  a  luncheon  dish. 

\  c.  milk  j  c.  bread  crumbs 

|  egg,  beaten  slightly  3  tbsp.  grated  cheese 

Salt  and  pepper 

Bake  in  a  buttered  dish,  until  firm. 

C.  PREPARE  WELSH  RABBIT. 

1  oz.  cheese  Cayenne  or  paprika 

£  tsp.  butter  \  egg,  beaten  slightly 

|  tsp.  mustard  1  tbsp.  milk 

\  tsp.  salt  1  slice  toast 

Melt  the  cheese  and  butter  in  a  double  boiler,  mixed 
with  the  dry  ingredients,  and  add  the  egg  in  the  milk 


282 


FOOD  STUDY 


U.S.D«partment  of  Agriculture  Prepared  by 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations  C.FLANGWORTHY 

AC.True:  Director  Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 

mrm      ras  ^^i      mrrm 

Protein  Pot  Carbohydrate,          Ash  Water 

WHOLE  EGG  EGG 

WHITE  AND  YOLK 


Water:737/ 


Fat:10.5— 
Ash-.L 

FUEL  VALUE  OF 

WHOLE  EGG> 


700  CALORIES 
PCR  POUND 


|waters86i2 

r 

KFVotein.-13.0 


FUEL  VALUE  or  YOLK» 


1608    CAU3RIES 
PCR  POUND 


CREAM  CHEESE 


FUEL   VALUE* 

1950   CALORIES  PER  POUND 


COTTAGE  CHEESE 


Waters  7£Q 


20.9 


Carbo. 
hydrates:4-.3 


510  CALORIES   PCR   POUND 


COMPOSITION  OP  EGGS  AND  CHEESE 


CHEESE  283 

as  soon  as  the  cheese  is  melted.    Stir,  until  it  thickens, 

and  pour  over  toast. 

Or: 

2.  Make  a  medium  white  sauce  and,  while  it  is  hot,  stir 
in  grated  cheese,  seasoning  with  salt  and  pepper. 

CHEESE 

Cheese  first  was  probably  only  a  means  of  preserv- 
ing milk ;  now  there  are  several  hundred  varieties.  Like 
butter,  cheese  was  a  home-made  product  until  about 
1850,  while  now,  except  for  cottage  cheese,  almost  no 
family  makes  its  own  supply. 

In  making  cheese,  the  milk  is  first  allowed  to  "ripen  " 
until  it  is  at  the  right  stage  of  sourness.  Sometimes  lactic- 
acid-forming  bacteria  are  added  to  the  milk  in  order  to 
hasten  the  souring.  If  the  cheese  is  to  be  colored,  the  col- 
oring material  is  mixed  with  the  milk.  Rennet  is  then 
stirred  into  the  milk.  This  is  a  ferment  capable  of  clot- 
ting milk,  obtained  from  the  lining  of  calves'  stomachs. 
When  the  curd  has  formed,  it  is  cut  into  small  pieces; 
these  are  stirred  and  heated  somewhat  and  piled  up  to 
drain  off  as  much  whey  as  possible,  and  so  improve  the 
texture  of  the  cheese.  The  curd  is  again  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  salted  and  pressed.  The  salt  helps  to  check 
any  further  souring.  The  product  at  this  stage  is  called 
green  cheese,  and  is  lacking  in  flavor  until  it  undergoes  a 
ripening  process.  For  this  purpose  the  cheese  is  stored 
at  the  desired  temperature  for  weeks  or  even  months 
until  various  ferments  or  micro-organisms,  mainly  bacteria, 
produce  the  desired  flavor  and  texture.  Finally,  the  rind 
is  treated  with  disinfectants  and  painted  or  varnished  to 
protect  the  cheese  from  further  action. 

Cheese  is  of  two  main  types,  —  hard  and  soft.    Almost 


284  FOOD  STUDY 

three-fourths  of  the  cheese  used  in  this  country  is  hard 
cheese,  of  which  "American  Cheese"  is  an  example.  A 
more  accurate  name  for  this  cheese  is  "  American  Cheddar 
Cheese."  It  is  often  called  "New  York  Cream  Cheese." 

Milk  from  goats  may  be  used  in  making  cheese.  Some 
cheese  is  made  from  skimmed  milk;  some  from  whole 
milk ;  some  even  from  whole  milk  to  which  cream  has  been 
added.  In  "filled  cheese",  the  cream  is  removed  and  lard 
or  some  other  fat  is  substituted.  The  sale  of  skimmed- 
milk  cheese  and  of  filled  cheese  is  often  regulated  by  state 
laws.  Federal  laws  require  the  sale  of  filled  cheese  in 
labeled  packages. 

Cheese  is  often  considered  difficult  of  digestion,  but 
undoubtedly  part  of  this  trouble  is  due  to  the  failure  to 
chew  it  sufficiently.  Moreover,  cheese,  which  is  highly 
nutritious,  is  commonly  eaten  at  the  end  of  a  meal  and 
the  consequences  of  overeating  are  laid  to  the  indiges- 
tibility  of  cheese.  Experiments  conducted  by  Lang- 
worthy  show  that  cheese  is  digestible  both  as  to  ease 
and  completeness  of  digestion,  there  being  "practically 
no  difference  between  the  cheese  and  the  meat  with 
respect  to  ease  of  digestion,  at  least  in  such  quantities 
as  are  commonly  eaten."  American  cheese  is,  then,  a 
good  substitute  for  meat,  and,  at  ordinary  prices,  a  cheap 
source  of  protein. 

REFERENCES 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  487.     "  Cheese 
and  Its  Economic  Use  in  the  Diet." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  does  ordinary  cheese  cost  per  pound? 

2.  What  is  the  average  composition  of  such  cheese  ? 

3.  How  does  it  compare  in  expense  with  meat  as  a  source  of  pro- 
tein?    In  total  nourishment? 


SALADS  AND   SALAD   DRESSINGS  285 

4.  What  other  kinds  of  cheese  are  for  sale  in  your  markets,  and 
what  do  they  cost  ? 

5.  Give  examples  of  hard  and  soft  cheeses. 

6.  Discuss  the  digestibility  of  cheese.     Give  as  many  reasons  as 
possible  why  it  is  ordinarily  considered  somewhat  indigestible. 

7.  In  making  macaroni  and  cheese,  would  it  be  better  to  sprinkle 
the  cheese  on  top,  or  mix  it  with  the  white  sauce  ?    Give  the  reason. 

8.  Suggest  different  cheese  dishes. 

9.  Give  the  essential  steps  in  the  making  of  cheese. 


LXI 

SALADS 

SALAD  DRESSING 

A.  Class  Experiments.     EMULSIONS. 

1.  Shake  together  a  few  drops  of  oil  with  a  little 
vinegar  or  water.     Examine.     Let  stand,  and 
examine  again.     Is  the  emulsion  permanent  ? 

2.  (a)  Shake  together  a  few  drops  of  oil  with  a  little 
sodium  hydroxide  solution,  and  examine  after 
letting  it  stand. 

(b)  Shake  together  a  little  oil  with  a  little 
vinegar  and  a  little  egg  yolk,  and  examine  after 
letting  it  stand. 

B.  MAKE  A  MAYONNAISE  DRESSING. 

Use  the  following  proportions : 

£  tsp.  mustard  *  f  tsp.  paprika 

f  tsp.  sugar  1  tsp.  vinegar 

£  tsp.  salt  ^  tsp.  lemon 

1  egg  yolk  |  c.  oil  2 

1  May  be  omitted  entirely. 

2  Olive  oil  or  a  good  cottonseed  oil  may  be  used.    A  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  the  two  is  satisfactory. 


286  FOOD  STUDY 

After  separating,  the  yolk  of  the  egg  may  be  rolled 
about  on  a  piece  of  cheesecloth,  held  flat  in  the  hand,  to 
remove  all  of  the  white.  This  will  give  a  thicker  dressing. 
Have  the  mixing  bowl  and  the  ingredients  cold.  In  very 
warm  weather  the  bowl  may  be  surrounded  with  cracked 
ice.  Beat  the  yolk  until  it  is  thick  and  creamy.  Add 
the  dry  ingredients,  and,  beating  constantly,  the  other 
ingredients  in  one  of  the  two  following  ways : 

1.  Add  the  oil  slowly,  at  first  drop  by  drop,  until  a 
good  emulsion  is  formed.      Then  add  the  lemon  and 
vinegar  alternately  with  the  oil.     Beat  vigorously 
before  each  addition. 

2.  Add  the  vinegar  and  lemon  to  the  beaten  egg ;  then, 
add  the  oil,  slowly.     It  should  not  be  necessary  to 
add  it  drop  by  drop.     Beat  vigorously  between  each 
addition. 

If  the  oil  separates  out,  beat  another  yolk,  and  add  the 
separated  mixture  slowly,  beating  vigorously. 

The  mayonnaise  may  be  mixed  with  whipped  cream, 
or  with  stiffly  beaten  white  of  egg,  immediately  before 
serving. 

C.    MAKE  BOILED  DRESSING. 

1  egg  2  tsp.  sugar 
f  c.  milk  1  tsp.  salt 

2  tbsp.  butter  1  tsp.  flour 

2  tbsp.  vinegar  f  tsp.  mustard  * 

|  tsp.  paprika 

Mix  the  dry  ingredients  and  add  the  vinegar.  Beat  the 
egg  slightly  and  add  the  milk.  Combine  the  two.  Which 
should  be  poured  into  the  other?  Add  the  butter. 
Cook  as  boiled  custard. 

1  May  be  omitted. 


ARRANGEMENTS  IN  THE  KITCHEN         287 

If  uncertain  of  the  freshness  of  the  milk,  make  without 
the  vinegar  and  cool  the  mixture  before  adding  the  acid. 

D.    SALADS. 

Serve  dressings  on  salads,  using  such  combinations  of 
meat,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  nuts,  as  seem  desirable. 
Review  Lesson  XXX  for  treatment  of  lettuce. 

Suggestions: 

1.  Apple  and  date  with  boiled  dressing. 

2.  Orange,  pineapple,  and  grape,  with  mayonnaise. 

3.  Apple,  celery,  and  nut,  with  either  dressing. 

4.  Cabbage  with  boiled  dressing. 

5.  String  beans  with  either  dressing. 

6.  Banana  with  boiled  dressing,  sprinkled  with  nuts. 

7.  Potato  salad  with  either  dressing. 

ARRANGEMENTS  IN  THE  KITCHEN  AND  DINING  ROOM 

The  older  idea  of  a  kitchen  is  quite  different  from  our 
modern  ideal.  Originally  the  kitchen  was  a  living  room 
in  which  the  preparation  of  food  was  carried  on  as  one  of 
many  industries.  Therefore,  when  the  room  was  in  order, 
everything  pertaining  to  cooking  was,  as  far  as  possible, 
put  out  of  sight.  Now,  the  kitchen  is  a  workshop  for  the 
preparation  of  food  and  need  be  adapted  only  for  that 
use,  and  may  show  frankly  the  use  for  which  it  is  intended. 

If  one  pictures  the  going  to  and  fro  which  is  necessary 
in  the  preparation  of  a  meal,  the  advantage  of  a  small 
kitchen  is  at  once  obvious.  The  stove,  sink,  and  table, 
to  save  both  time  and  steps,  must  be  near  each  other. 
Their  relative  positions,  also,  make  a  considerable  dif- 
ference in  the  steps  which  have  to  be  taken.  In  the 
preparation  of  a  meal,  food  which  is  ready  to  go  to  the 
dining  room  is  taken  from  the  stove,  placed  in  serving 


288  FOOD  STUDY 

dishes,  and  carried  into  the  other  room.  Therefore,  a 
serving  table  should  stand  between  the  stove  and  the  door 
into  the  dining  room.  This  need  not  be  a  large  table ;  it 
may  be  only  a  shelf,  even  a  folding  shelf.  It  may  very 
conveniently  be  covered  with  galvanized  iron  or  zinc,  be- 
cause then  hot  dishes  and  kettles  can  freely  be  set  on  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  table  on  which  food  is  prepared  for 
cooking  should  stand  next  to  the  stove  and  near  the  storage 
cupboard  and  ice-box.  These  need  not  necessarily  be  in 
one  straight  line.  Note  the  accompanying  illustrations 
(floor  plans  of  kitchens). 

For  washing  dishes,  the  drain  boards  and  china  closet 
should  be  near  the  sink.  But,  obviously,  water  will  also 
be  needed  in  mixing  food,  and  in  cooking  it.  The  best 
way,  then,  to  bring  the  sink  near  all  these  is  to  place  it 
opposite  the  stove. 

This  sort  of  arrangement  of  work  is  called  "routing"  it. 
Unfortunately  the  positions  of  the  stove,  sink,  and  closets 
are  often  determined  by  the  architect,  with  little  or  no 
regard  to  the  convenience  of  the  worker.  But  thought 
and  ingenuity  in  putting  up  shelves  and  cupboards  can  do 
much  in  transforming  an  inconvenient  kitchen  into  at 
least  a  more  convenient  one. 

Nor  are  these  larger  arrangements  the  only  ones  to  be 
thought  about.  Quite  as  much  saving  of  time  can  be 
made  by  the  proper  placing  of  utensils  and  supplies. 
Think  where  any  given  article  is  used  most  and  keep  it  near 
that  place.  For  example,  soap,  scouring  powder,  silver 
polish,  as  well  as  the  dishpan,  dish-mop,  and  the  like  are 
all  used  in  the  sink.  Store  them  so  that  they  are  within 
immediate  reach.  Some  may  hang  from  the  wall  behind 
the  sink,  or  from  the  edge  of  a  small  shelf  placed  above 
and  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  sink.  Compare  the  con- 
venience of  this  with  the  practice,  for  example,  of  carrying 


ARRANGEMENTS  IN  THE  KITCHEN 


289 


the  dishpan,  often  every  time  it  is  used,  across  the  kitchen 
and  standing  it  in  a  pantry  closet. 

Certain  supplies  should  be  kept  near  the  stove,  as  well 


II 1 1 II 
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From  '•  You  and  Your  Kitchen,"  bv  Mrs.  Christine  t'reuerlck. 

FLOOR  PLAN  OF  A  POORLY-ARRANGED  KITCHEN 

A.  Steps  taken  in  the  preparation  of  a  meal.    B.  Steps  taken  in 
clearing  away. 

as  spoons  and  other  utensils  to  be  used  there.  Of  course, 
nothing  which  is  not  used  frequently  should  be  stored  in  the 
kitchen.  Other  things  are  better  put  away  in  cupboards 
or  in  the  pantry.  If  the  kitchen  is  dusty,  as  when  a  coal 


290 


FOOD   STUDY 


range  is  used,  open  shelves  may  be  replaced  by  cupboards, 
or  by  curtained  shelves  protected  by  a  window  shade 
which  will  roll  up.  Narrow  shelves  with  articles  only 
one  row  deep  are  much  more  convenient  than  wider 


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From  "  You  and  Your  Kitchen,"  by  Mrs.  Christine  Frederick. 

FLOOR  PLAN  OF  THE  SAME  KITCHEN,  PROPERLY  ARRANGED 

shelves  where  the  articles  in  front  must  be  moved  aside 
to  give  access  to  those  behind.  Plan  never  to  hang  one 
article  over  another  on  the  same  hook. 

Apply  these  same  principles  to  the  arrangements  of  the 
dining  room.     Evidently  salt  and  pepper  shakers,  sugar 


ARRANGEMENT  IN  THE  KITCHEN 


291 


bowls,  napkins  in  use,  and  other  articles  used  only  at  the 
table  should  be  stored  as  near  it  as  possible.  But  what 
about  serving  dishes?  If  these  are  kept  in  the  dining 
room,  they  must  be  taken  to  the  kitchen,  filled,  brought 


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ANOTHER  WELL-ARRANGED  KITCHEN 

back,  used,  carried  out,  washed,  and  brought  back  again 
for  storage,  'only  to  be  carried  out  to  the  kitchen  again 
before  using.  This  is  evidently  not  efficiency. 

Planning  of  this  sort  is  really  very  useful.  Time  studies 
are  often  made  to  determine  which  is  the  quickest  way  of 
carrying  on  a  given  process,  or  to  see  how  much  time  is 


292  FOOD  STUDY 

saved  by  a  better  arrangement.  Noting  the  exact  time 
it  takes  to  do  a  given  task  by  one  method,  and  then  the 
exact  time  necessary  in  another  way,  shows  the  difference 
in  the  two  much  more  accurately  than  a  mere  impression 
of  the  difference.  Surely,  the  ideal  is  not  to  spend  one's 
whole  time  doing  housework,  but  to  do  it  as  quickly  and 
efficiently  as  possible,  so  that  one  may  have  time  for  the 
larger  things  of  life. 

REFERENCES 

Various  cook  books,  on  salads. 

"The  Efficient  Kitchen,"  by  Georgie  Boynton  Child. 

"The  New  Housekeeping,"  by  Christine  Frederick. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Into  what  two  general  classes  would  you  divide  salads? 

2.  Which  kind  of  salads  would  it  be  appropriate  to  include  in 
a  hearty-dinner  menu  ? 

3.  What  are  the  chief  points  to  consider  in  judging  a  salad  ? 

4.  What  ways  do  you  recommend  for  caring  for  celery  which  must 
be  kept  for  a  day  or  two  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  worth  while  to  learn  to  like  salads  ? 


LXII 
LUNCHEON 

PREPARE  AND  SERVE  A  LUNCHEON. 

Decide  on  the  type  of  luncheon  you  wish  to  prepare 
(formal  or  informal),  on  the  number  of  people  to  be 
served,  and  on  the  amount  you  wish  to  spend.  How 
will  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  time  you  can  spend 
in  preparation  affect  your  choice  ?  Plan  a  menu  accord- 
ingly. Prepare  and  serve. 


MENU- MAKING  293 

MENU-MAKING 

Most  of  the  principles  of  menu-making  have  already 
been  stated,  but  it  will  be  useful  to  bring  them  together, 
and  sum  up  at  this  point.  A  great  deal  is  said  at  the 
present  time  about  balanced  meals,  and  many  lists  of 
these  are  published.  At  first  glance  the  student  who 
knows  that  a  "balanced  diet"  furnishes  a  certain 
number  of  total  calories,  —  with  a  certain  percentage 
of  these  from  fats,  proteins,  and  carbohydrates,  —  and 
a  given  amount  of  mineral  elements,  is  puzzled,  be- 
cause these  lists  say  nothing  at  all  about  amounts.  It 
must  be  evident,  then,  that  such  meals  are  not  accurately 
balanced  in  this  sense.  They  are  balanced  in  the  sense 
that  they  furnish  all  the  different  elements  required  and 
in  approximately  the  correct  amounts.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  housekeeper  who  tried  to  balance  the  diet  for  every 
member  of  the  family  would  have  an  endless  task  and 
would  seldom  accomplish  her  end,  because  the  various 
individuals  would  demand  liberty  to  eat  more  or  less  of  the 
foods  provided  and  the  accurate  balance  would  be  upset  at 
once. 

For  the  healthy  individual  no  such  accurate  plan- 
ning is  necessary,  but  it  is  most  important  that  meals  be 
balanced  in  the  other  sense.  First,  meals  should  be  con- 
sidered not  individually,  but  in  groups,  meals  for  the  day, 
for  the  week.  Decide,  for  example,  how  much  meat  you 
intend  to  include  in  the  diet  of  the  week,  and  distribute  it 
accordingly.  Some  people  find  themselves  best  suited 
with  meat  only  two  or  three  times  a  week ;  others  desire 
it  at  least  once  a  day,  while  still  others  prefer  it  in  smaller 
amounts  even  more  frequently.  But  as  meat  is  expensive 
and  too  much  of  it  is  probably  not  good  for  us,  the  skilled 
menu-maker  will  devise  substitutes  which  will  satisfy 


294  FOOD  STUDY 

her  family  and  gradually  change  their  tastes.  Remember 
that  the  food  habits  of  children  are  much  more  easily 
changed  than  are  those  of  adults. 

Having  selected  the  meat  or  meat  substitute,  begin 
filling  out  the  meal.  Remember  that  it  is  wise  to  distrib- 
ute the  fat  so  as  not  to  have  too  much  of  it  in  any  one 
meal  as  it  is  likely  to  cause  digestive  disturbances.  In 
making  combinations,  do  not  include  in  the  same  meal 
dishes  which  furnish  practically  the  same  food  principles. 
Rice  should  be  substituted  for  potatoes  and  not  served 
with  them.  Plan  definitely  to  include  vegetables  and 
fruits  for  their  mineral  content.  If  meat  and  nutritive 
vegetables  are  to  be  served,  fruits  make  a  suitable  dessert. 
If  the  dessert,  on  the  other  hand,  is  rich  and  high  in  food 
value,  see  that  the  vegetables  are  less  starchy.  If  little 
meat  is  provided  and  the  whole  dinner  seems  too  light, 
the  meal  might  include  a  hearty  soup  or  salad.  Consider- 
ing the  larger  grouping,  we  should  see  that  the  food  for  the 
day  runs  evenly.  If  a  lunch  or  supper  is  hearty,  the 
dinner  should  be  lighter  than  usual,  or  vice-versa.  Alter- 
nate days  of  feast  and  famine  do  not  give  satisfaction. 

The  suitability  of  the  food  must  also  be  taken  into 
account.  People  who  work  out  of  doors  most  of  the  time 
not  only  need  more  hearty  food,  but  can  digest  it  better 
than  can  those  who  are  more  closely  confined  and  with 
more  sedentary  habits.  For  the  latter,  as  for  children, 
easily  digested  food  must  be  provided. 

Last  but  by  no  means  least,  remember  to  provide  variety. 
First,  variety  within  the  meal  itself.  Not  only  should  the 
same  flavor  not  appear  twice  in  a  meal,  as  chicken  broth 
followed  by  chicken,  or  tomato  soup  followed  by  tomato 
salad,  but  as  much  variety  as  possible  in  food  combinations 
should  be  sought.  It  is  evident  that  a  meal  must  not  be 
composed  too  largely  of  liquids,  and  the  dryness  or 


MENU-MAKING  295 

character  of  the  food  should  be  considered.  Boiled  pota- 
toes are  more  acceptable  with  a  meat  with  gravy  than, 
for  example,  with  Hamburg  steak.  Peas  and  beans  at  the 
same  time  not  only  provide  about  the  same  food  elements 
in  the  same  proportions,  but  are  too  much  alike.  Two 
creamed  vegetables  at  once  are  not  so  pleasing  as  if  one 
were  mashed  or  served  in  some  other  way.  Variety  in 
flavor  is  important.  Two  strong-flavored  vegetables,  as 
onions  and  turnips,  are  not  acceptable  at  the  same  time ; 
on  the  other  hand,  if  only  mild-flavored  foods  are  chosen, 
the  whole  is  insipid.  In  food  combinations,  color,  too, 
should  be  taken  into  account.  Carrots  and  cranberries 
do  not  make  a  pleasing  color  harmony. 

Variety  also  demands  that  the  same  foods  prepared  in 
exactly  the  same  way  should  not  be  served  at  successive 
meals.  Moreover,  the  same  food  combinations  should  not 
be  repeated  too  frequently.  Do  not  always  serve  peas 
with  lamb.  Bread  and  butter  are,  of  course,  repeated, 
but  there  are  innumerable  ways  of  serving  potatoes, 
although  if  you  lived  in  some  families  you  would  think  that 
there  were  but  one  or  two  at  most.  Left-overs  may  be  made 
to  appear  like  a  new  dish,  or  a  meal  may  be  skipped  before 
serving  the  same  article  again.  Some  boarding-house 
keepers  and  some  housewives,  as  well,  make  the  mistake 
of  running  on  a  regular  schedule  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
predict  the  meal  beforehand.  This  is,  of  course,  a  grave 
error. 

A  warning  should  be  given  in  regard  to  variety.  The 
variety  desirable  is  not  the  serving  of  too  many  kinds  of 
food  at  one  meal.  Some  people,  and  especially  country 
hotel-keepers,  serve  at  one  meal  all  the  vegetables  that  are 
to  be  had,  and  there  is  no  variety  possible  for  the  next 
meal.  Pickles  of  various  sorts,  different  kinds  of  jam 
and  preserves,  appear  all  at  once  at  each  meal,  and  one 


296  FOOD  STUDY 

grows  as  tired  of  them  all  as  if  one  had  really  eaten  all 
the  kinds,  whereas  one  served  at  a  time  at  different  meals 
would  have  meant  a  new  attractiveness.  For  this  reason 
it  is  easy  to  tire  of  cafeteria  or  hotel  meals  where  the  food 
has  to  be  selected  before  eating. 

REFERENCE 

U.'S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Office  of  Exp.  Station.      Circular  110. 
"Food  Customs  and  Diet  in  American  Homes." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  following  menus  faulty  ?    How  would  you  improve 
them? 

(a)  Split-pea  soup  (6)  Bouillon 

Roast  beef  Bacon  and  eggs 

Mashed  potatoes  Buttered  beets 

Baked  beans  Squash 

Banana  salad  Lettuce  salad,  French  dressing 

Plum  pudding  Baked    apple    and    whipped 

cream 

(c)  Roast  lamb 
Macaroni 
Creamed  potatoes 
Boiled  rice 

2.  Make  out  balanced  menus  for  a  week's  meals,  providing  for  the 
use  of  left-overs,  and  introducing  variety.    State  whether  you  con- 
sider the  meals  are  low,  medium,  or  high  in  price. 


APPENDIX 
FOOD  REQUIREMENTS 

A.   For  Adults 

I.  Atwater  and  Benedict's  Standard  for  Total  Calories 
for  average  man  weighing  154  pounds. 

Man  sleeping  requires 65  calories  per  hour 

Man  sitting  at  rest 100  calories  per  hour 

Man  at  light  muscular  exercise 170  calories  per  hour 

Man  at  active  muscular  exercise      ....  290  calories  per  hour 

Man  at  severe  muscular  exercise      ....  450  calories  per  hour 

Man  at  very  severe  muscular  exercise  .     .     .  600  calories  per  hour 

The  average  woman  is  supposed  to  require  eight-tenths 
of  the  amount  needed  by  the  man.  This  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  the  average  woman  weighs  eight-tenths  of  the 
weight  of  the  average  man. 

Using  the  figures  given  above,  the  daily  requirement 
for  a  man  of  average  weight  with  the  given  activity  would 
be  as  follows : 

8  hours  of  sleep  [65  cal.  needed  each  hour]  ....  520  calories 
6  hours  of  sitting  at  rest1  [100  cal.  needed  each  hour] .  600  calories 
5  hours  of  light  exercise  2  [170  cal.  needed  each  hour]  .  850  calories 
4  hours  of  active  exercise  [290  cal.  needed  each  hour] .  1160  calories 
l_hour  of  severe  muscular  exercise 3  [450  cal.  each]  .  450  calories 
24  Total  Calories  needed  per  day  3580 

1  Eating,  reading,  writing,  etc. 

2  Moderate  walking,  dressing,  etc. 

8  Chopping  wood,  digging  ditches,  etc. 
297 


298  FOOD  STUDY 

2.  Atwater's  Standard  for  Total   Calories   for   adults 
under  different  conditions  of  activity. 

Man  with  hard  muscular  work 4150 

Man  with  moderately  active  work 3400 

Man  at  sedentary  or  woman  with  moderately  active  work    .  2700 

Man  without  exercise  or  woman  at  light  to  moderate  work    .  2450 

3.  Standards  for  Protein. 

How  much  protein  is  desirable  is  still  unsettled. 
About  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  total  calories  should  come 
from  protein,  according  to  Atwater;  twelve  per  cent,  ac- 
cording to  Langworthy;  eight  and  one-half  per  cent, 
according  to  Chittenden. 

Mothers*  milk  furnishes  a  little  less  than  one-tenth  of  the 
total  calories  from  protein.  As  this  is  by  nature  intended 
for  the  period  of  greatest  growth,  this  is  probably  enough 
for  any  age,  provided  the  protein  is  well  adapted  for  use 
in  body-building. 

4.  Standard  for  Mineral  Elements. 

This  has  not  been  determined  so  accurately  as  has 
the  total  calorie  requirement.  It  is  probable  that  there  is 
a  larger  demand  for  mineral  elements  in  proportion  to  the 
total  calorie  requirement  during  growth  than  in  adult  life. 
Calcium,  iron,  and  phosphorus  are  the  mineral  elements 
which  are  least  likely  to  be  present  in  sufficient  amounts. 
The  requirement  is  usually  stated  as  follows : 

Calcium  oxide  [CaO]       1.0      gram 

Iron   [Fe] 015  gram 

Phosphoric  acid  [P2O61 2.75    grams 

E.  B.  Forbes  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  says : 
"Generally  speaking,  a  high  ash  content  of  the  food  is 
desirable,  since  the  organism  is  much  better  able  to  handle 
an  excess  of  ash  constituents  than  to  meet  a  deficiency. 


APPENDIX  299 

It  is  good  practice,  therefore,  to  utilize  the  water  in  which 
foods  are  cooked,  in  so  far  as  this  can  be  done  without 
detracting  from  the  acceptability  of  the  food,  since  the 
cooking  water  dissolves  out  much  mineral  matter.  An 
abundance  of  mineral  salts  in  the  diet  is  also  desirable, 
aside  from  nutritive  considerations,  because  they  con- 
tribute a  laxative  character  to  the  food.  Foods  which 
are  deficient  in  minerals  are  apt  to  be  constipating. 

"A  general  character  of  the  mineral  nutrients  of  foods 
is  the  predominance  of  acid  or  basic  elements.  If  the 
nutrients  are  present  in  the  proportions  in  which  they  are 
needed  the  bases  will  predominate,  and  it  is  probably 
best  that  the  bases  should  exceed  the  acid  elements  in  the 
diet.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  organism  has  the  ca- 
pacity to  neutralize  a  considerable  excess  of  acids.  Meat, 
eggs,  and  cereals  have  acid  ash;  vegetables,  milk,  and 
most  fruits  have  alkaline  ash.  The  latter  group  should 
be  liberally  represented  in  the  diet." 

Foods  High  in  Calcium 

Milk  and  cheese  [both  especially  rich],  eggs,  vegetables, 
fruits,  hard  water. 

Foods  High  in  Iron 

Beef,  eggs,  beans,  peas,  and  other  green  vegetables 
[especially  spinach],  raisins,  figs,  dates,  prunes. 

Foods  High  in  Phosphorus 

Milk  and  cheese,  eggs,  nuts,  vegetables  [especially  peas 
and  beans],  cereal  products  with  outer  seed  coats. 


300 


FOOD  STUDY 


TABLE  OF  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT 


A.    For  Men 

Symonds's  Table  of  Height  and  Weight  for  Men  at  Different  Ages. 

Based  on  74,162  accepted  Applicants  for  Life  Insurance. 

(Medical  Record,  Sept.  5,  1908.) 


Ages. 

15-24 

26-29 

30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55-59 

60-64 

65-69 

DO  D«f 

5  ft.  0  in. 

120 

125 

128 

131 

133 

134 

134 

134 

131 

1  in. 

122 

126 

129 

131 

134 

136 

136 

136 

134 

2  in. 

124 

128 

131 

133 

136 

138 

138 

138 

137 

3  in. 

127 

131 

134 

136 

139 

141 

141 

141 

140 

140 

4  in. 

131 

135 

138 

140 

143 

144 

145 

145 

144 

143 

Sin. 

134 

138 

141 

143 

146 

147 

149 

149 

148 

147 

Gin. 

138 

142 

145 

147 

150 

151 

153 

153 

153 

151 

7  in. 

142 

147 

150 

152 

155 

156 

158 

158 

158 

156 

Sin. 

146 

151 

154 

159 

160 

161 

163 

163 

163 

162 

9  in. 

150 

155 

159 

162 

165 

166 

167 

168 

168 

168 

10  in. 

154 

159 

164 

167 

170 

171 

172 

173 

174 

174 

11  in. 

159 

164 

169 

173 

175 

177 

177 

178 

180 

180 

6  ft.  0  in. 

165 

170 

175 

179 

180 

183 

182 

183 

185 

185 

lin. 

170 

177 

181 

185 

186 

189 

188 

189 

189 

189 

2  in. 

176 

184 

188 

192 

194 

196 

194 

194 

192 

192 

Sin. 

181 

190 

195 

200 

203 

204 

201 

198 

B.    For  Women 

Symonds's  Table  of  Height  and  Weight  for  Women  at  Different  Ages. 

Based  on  58,855  accepted  Applicants  for  Life  Insurance. 

(McClure's  Magazine,  Jan.  1909.) 


A«w>s 

15—19 

20-24 

25-29 

'30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55  59 

60  64 

Ages. 

DU  O* 

4ft.  11  in. 

111 

113 

115 

117 

119 

122 

125 

128 

128 

126 

5ft.  Oin. 

113 

114 

117 

119 

122 

125 

128 

130 

131 

129 

lin. 

115 

116 

118 

121 

124 

128 

131 

133 

134 

132 

2  in. 

117 

118 

120 

123 

127 

132 

134 

137 

137 

136 

3m, 

120 

122 

124 

127 

131 

135 

138 

141 

141 

140 

4  in. 

123 

125 

127 

130 

134 

138 

142 

145 

145 

144 

5  in. 

125 

128 

131 

135 

139 

143 

147 

149 

149 

148 

6  in. 

128 

132 

135 

137- 

143 

146 

151 

153 

153 

152 

7  in. 

132 

135 

139 

143 

147 

150 

154 

157 

156 

155 

Sin. 

136 

140 

143 

147 

151 

155 

158 

161 

161 

160 

9  in. 

140 

144 

147 

151 

155 

159 

163 

166 

166 

165 

10  in. 

144 

147 

151 

155 

159 

163 

167 

170 

170 

169 

APPENDIX 
C.    For  Children 


301 


AGE 

CALORIES  PER  POUND  OF 
BODY  WEIGHT 

CALORIES  PER  DAT 

1-2 

45-40 

900-1200 

2-5 

40-35 

1200-1500 

6-9 

35-30 

1500-1800 

10-13 

30-25 

1800-2200 

14-17 

25-20 

2200-3000 

D.    For  Children 


Sill's  Table  of  Weights  of  Children  from  Birth  to  the  Fifth  Year. 

(New  York  Medical  Journal,  January,  1911.) 

From  Tables  by  Koplik. 


AGE  WEIGHT 

At  birth 7.5 

6  months     ...'.* 15.0 

1  year 21.0 

30.3 

29.2 

. 34.9 

33.1 

fboys       37.9 

4years|girls 36.3 


302 


FOOD  STUDY 


D.    For  Children  (Continued) 

II 

Average  Weight  and  Height  of  Boys  at  Different  Ages. 

[Ninth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 

Part  I,  1910,  Health  and  Education.] 


Ht 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

in. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yre. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yre. 

yrs. 

yre. 

yre. 

39 

35 

40 

38 

36 

41 

39 

39 

42 

41 

41 

43 

42 

42 

42 

44 

46 

44 

43 

45 

46 

46 

45 

46 

48 

48 

48 

47 

49 

50 

50 

48 

54 

53 

53 

53 

49 

54 

55 

55 

50 

57 

58 

58 

51 

59 

60 

60 

61 

52 

62 

62 

61 

63 

53 

62 

65 

65 

67 

67 

67 

54 

65 

68 

68 

70 

71 

71 

55 

69 

71 

75 

75 

76 

56 

71 

77 

76 

78 

79 

79 

57 

77 

79 

80 

82 

82 

58 

78 

84 

85 

86 

87 

59 

84 

86 

90 

91 

60 

85 

91 

94 

95 

90 

61 

98 

97 

99 

96 

62 

99 

103 

106 

104 

104 

63 

100 

107 

112 

112 

110 

118 

64 

114 

118 

120 

117 

120 

120 

65 

122 

119 

122 

122 

120 

126 

125 

66 

121 

125 

125 

126 

129 

139 

67 

128 

129 

128 

131 

134 

132 

68 

133 

133 

130 

136 

136 

136 

69 

134 

136 

139 

139 

139 

139 

70 

136 

140 

143 

143 

144 

145 

71 

140 

146 

146 

146 

164 

72 

149 

154 

73 

165 

APPENDIX 


303 


D.    For  Children  (Continued) 

III 

Table  of  Weight  and  Height  of  Girls  at  Different  Ages. 
[Ninth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 

Part  I,  1910.] 


Ht 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

in. 

yrs 

yra. 

yrs. 

yra. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yra. 

yrs. 

yra. 

yrs. 

yra. 

yra. 

yra. 

yra. 

yra. 

yra. 

39 

34 

40 

37 

35 

41 

38 

37 

42 

41 

39 

39 

43 

41 

41 

42 

44 

45 

43 

44 

42 

45 

45 

45 

45 

46 

48 

47 

47 

47 

50 

49 

49 

48 

51 

51 

49 

53 

53 

54 

50 

56 

56 

57 

51 

59 

58 

60 

52 

63 

62 

62 

63 

53 

64 

63 

66 

65 

54 

69 

68 

69 

68 

55 

70 

71 

73 

56 

75 

75 

76 

78 

57 

78 

80 

83 

58 

83 

86 

88 

89 

59 

88 

94 

93 

97 

100 

60 

94 

99 

96 

100 

104 

109 

103 

99 

99 

61 

104 

100 

102 

109 

109 

106 

105 

111 

62 

104 

106 

111 

110 

107 

111 

114 

63 

107 

109 

116 

110 

112 

113 

114 

64 

112 

118 

116 

117 

114 

119 

115 

65 

114 

118 

121 

125 

120 

123 

125 

TABLE   OF   FUEL   VALUES 


The  approximate  weight  in  ounces  and  the  exact  weight 
in  grams  of  the  amount  of  each  food  necessary  to  furnish 
100  calories  of  heat  are  shown  in  the  following  tables,  as 
well  as  the  number  of  these  calories  which  come  from  pro- 
tein. 

If  it  is  desired  to  add  other  foods  to  the  list,  divide  the 
number  of  calories  furnished  by  a  pound  l  of  the  food  into 
1600  to  find  the  number  of  ounces,  into  45,364  to  find  the 
number  of  grams.  To  find  the  number  of  calories  from 
protein,  multiply  the  weight  in  grams  of  the  100-calorie 
portion  by  the  per  cent 2  of  protein  in  the  food,  and  then 
multiply  by  4. 

In  the  table,  A.  P.  means  "As  Purchased" ;  E.  P.  means 
"Edible  Portion." 


WEIGHT  OP  100-CALOBiE 

APPROXIMATE 

NAME  OF  FOOD 

PORTION 

NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

PROTEIN 

Berries 

Blackberries   .... 

6 

171 

9 

Blueberries     .... 

4* 

131 

3 

Cranberries     .... 

71 

215 

3 

Currants    

6 

175 

10 

Raspberries     .... 

6 

164 

7 

Strawberries   .... 

9 

256 

10 

One  cup  of  berries  weighs  about  5|  oz. 

1  See  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Office  of  Experiment  Station. 
Bulletin  No.  28.     "Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food 
Materials." 

2  If  exact  results  are  desired,  re-calculate  the  fuel  value  per 
pound,  using  factors  4,  4,  9,  instead  of  4.1,  4.1,  and  9.3  used  in 
Bulletin. 

304 


APPENDIX 


305 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OF  100-CALORis 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

Biscuits  (see  also  Crackers) 
Beaten  

Rolls,  white  (water) 

I 

H 

21 
36 

10 
13 

One  medium-sized  roll  weighs  about  2  oz. 
One  large  sweet  roll  weighs  about  2?  oz. 


Graham 
Rye 

White 


One  thin  slice  of  home-made  bread  weighs  about  1  oz. 
One  thin  slice  of  bakers'  bread  weighs  about  £  oz. 
One  slice  Boston  brown  bread  weighs  about  2£  oz. 


3  also  muffins) 
Brown     .     .     . 
i      

li 
H 

H 

43 
38 
39 

9 
14 
14 

•*•  2 

u 

38 

14 

^heat      .     .     . 

x  2 

H 

41 

16 

Butter  (see  Fats) 

Cereals  (see  also  Bread) 

Corn  Meal      .... 

28 

10.5 

Corn  Flakes    .... 

28 

11 

Cornstarch      .... 

28 

— 

Farina        

28 

12 

Flour,  Graham    .     .     . 

28 

13 

Flour,  Rye      .     .     .     . 

29 

8 

Flour,  White       . 

28 

12 

Flour,  Whole  Wheat    . 

27 

15 

Hominy,  cooked 

1 

28 

9 

Macaroni,  uncooked     . 

1 

28 

15 

Oatmeal,  Rolled  Oats  . 

1 

28 

16 

Rice,  uncooked   .     .     . 

1 

29 

9 

Shredded  Wheat     .     . 

1 

27 

12 

Tapioca      

1 

28 

— 

Wheat,  Cracked      .     . 

1 

28 

12 

One  cup  of  corn  meal  weighs  about  5  oz. 

One  tablespoon  of  corn  starch  weighs  about  \  oz. 

One  cup  of  cereal  weighs  about  8  oz. 

One  shredded  wheat  biscuit  weighs  about  1  oz. 

One  cup  of  white  flour  weighs  about  4£  oz. 

One  tablespoon  of  white  flour  weighs  about  1  oz. 


306 


FOOD  STUDY 


WEIGHT  OF  IOO-CALORIE 

APPROXIMATE 

NAME  OF  FOOD 

PORTION 

NUMBER  OF 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

PROTEIN 

Cheese 

Cheddar     ....    .: 

I 

22 

24 

Cottage      .     .     .     .    .; 

si 

91 

76 

One  and  one-half  inch  cube  of  cheese  weighs  about  1  oz. 
One  tablespoon  of  grated  cheese  weighs  about  f  oz. 


Crackers 
Graham 
Oyster 
Saltines 
Soda 
Water 


(see  Sweets) 
)  Sweets) 

I 

4 

24 
24 

10 
11 

.     .     .     .     . 

3 

23 

24 

10 
10 

25 

12 

Four  square  wafers  weigh  about  1  oz. 


Cream  (see  Milk) 
Desserts  (see  Sweets) 
Eggs 
Whole  E.P.     .     . 
White    

2J 

7 

68 
196 

36 

97 

Yolk 

1 

28 

17 

One  egg  without  shell  weighs  about  If  oz. 
One  egg  white  weighs  about  1  oz. 
One  egg  yolk  weighs  about  £  oz. 


Fats  (see  Oil) 
Butter                       .    . 

i 

13 

0.5 

Cottolene  
Lard      

• 

i 

I 

11 
11 

Oleomargarine     .     .     . 
Salt  pork    

2 

i 
i 

13 
13 

0.5 
1 

One  tablespoon  of  butter  weighs  about 
One  pat  of  butter  weighs  about  £  oz. 
One  cup  of  butter  weighs  about  8  oz. 


oz. 


APPENDIX 


307 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OP  IOO-CALORIE 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grama 

Fish 

Blue,  E.P.  ..... 

4 

113 

88 

Butter,  E.P  

2 

59 

42 

Cod,  fresh,  dressed  .     . 

7! 

216 

96 

Cod,  salt,  E.P.    .     .     . 

3* 

126 

97 

Halibut,  Steak,  E.P.     . 

3 

82 

61 

Herring,  smoked      . 

u 

35 

51 

Lobster,  canned       .     . 

4* 

119 

86 

Oysters,  E.P.       ... 

7 

198 

49 

Salmon,  dressed,  E.P.  . 

H 

49 

43 

Sardines     ..... 

if 

37 

34 

Whitefish   .     .     .     .     . 

2i 

67 

61 

One  serving  of  halibut  or  whitefish  weighs  about  3  oz. 
One  cup  of  oysters  weighs  about  6  oz. 


Flour  (see  Cereals) 
Fruits  (see  also  Berries) 
Apples,  A.P  
Apples,  dried       .     .     . 
Apricots,  A.P. 

7* 

H 

6i 

212 
34 
184 

3 
3 

g 

Bananas,  E.P.     .     .     . 
Cherries,  fresh,  E.P.     . 
Cherries,  candied     .     . 
Cherries,  canned      .     . 
Currants,  fresh,  A.P.    . 
Currants,  dried   .     .     .• 
Dates,  A.P.     .    . 

31 
4| 
1 
4 
6i 
1 
1J 

101 
128 
29 
112 
175 
31 
32 

5 
9 
0.5 
5 
11 
3 
3 

Figs,  dried      ...     . 
Grapes,  A.P  

u 

5 

32 

138 

5 
5 

Grape  Juice    .... 
Grape  Fruit    .... 
Lemons,  A.P.    '  „  '   .    . 
Lemons,  E.P.      »    .     . 

3* 

8 

Hi 

8 

100 
220 
324 
226 

7 
9 
9 

Muskmelons  .... 
Olives,  A.P  

18 
11 

510 
46 

6 
2 

Oranges,  A.P.      ... 
Oranges,  E.P.      .    ..     . 
Peaches,  A.P.      ... 
Peaches,  canned       .     . 
Pears,  A.P.     .     .    .  ;  . 

9* 
7 
101 

7* 

fti 

268 
195 
297 
213 
177 

6 
6 
7 
6 
4 

308 


FOOD   STUDY 


NAME  OP  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OP  IOO-CALORIE 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OP 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

Fruits  (see  also  Berries) 
Pears,  canned      .     .     . 
Pineapples,  E.P.       .     . 
Pineapples,  canned  .     . 
Plums    

5 
81 
21 
4 
11 

11 
l 

151 

28i 

132 
232 
65 
118 
39 
32 
29 
433 
800 

2 
4 
1 
5 
3 
3 
3 
3 
5 

Prunes,  dried,  A.P. 
Raisins,  A.P  
Raisins,  E.P.  .    . 
Rhubarb,  E.P.     .     .     . 

Watermelons,  A.P.  .     . 

One  medium-sized  apple  weighs  about  5  oz. 

One  large  banana  weighs  about  5  oz. 

Three  dates  weigh  about  1  oz. 

One  fig  weighs  about  1  oa. 

Five  olives  weigh  about  1  oz. 

One  large  orange  weighs  about  6  oz. 

One  medium-sized  peach  weighs  about  4  oz. 

Three  prunes  weigh  about  1  oz. 

One  cup  of  raisins  weighs  about  4  oz. 


Meats 

«*fl 

*w 

Bacon,  smoked   .     .     . 

i 

16 

7 

Beef,  corned  .     . 

If 

34 

21 

Beef,  dried      .... 

2 

56 

67 

Beef,  Heart    .... 

U 

39 

25 

Beef,  Liver     .... 

3| 

78 

64 

Beef,  Porterhouse  Steak 

U 

37 

32 

Beef,  Roast    .... 

1 

29 

26 

Beef,  Round,  lean   .    . 

21 

64 

55 

Beef,  Sirloin   .... 

11 

41 

31 

Beef,  Sweetbreads   . 

2 

57 

38 

Beef,  Tenderloin      .     . 

11 

35 

23 

Beef,  Tongue,  E.P. 

21 

63 

48 

Chicken  (broilers),  E.P. 

3i 

93 

80 

Fowl,  E.  P  

ii 

45 

35 

Ham,  fresh,  medium  fat 

i 

31 

19 

Ham,  smoked,  medium 

fat       

i-i 

24 

16 

Ham,  deviled      .     .     . 

i 

26 

20 

APPENDIX 


309 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OF  100-CALOKiE 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.) 

drams 

Meats 

Lamb,  Chops,  broiled, 

E.P  

1 

28 

24 

Lamb,  Leg,  medium  fat, 

E.P  

If 

44 

34 

Mutton,  Leg,  medium 

fat,  E.P.       .     .     . 

If 

41 

32 

Pork,    Chops,   medium 

fat,  E.P  

U 

34 

22 

Pork,  Tenderloin     .     . 

If 

52 

39 

Sausage,  Pork      .     .     . 

f 

22 

12 

Sausage,  Pork  and  Beef 

11 

35 

17 

Sausage,  Wienerwurst  . 

11 

32 

36 

Turkey,  E.P.       ... 

H 

34 

29 

Veal,  Cutlet,  E.P.    .     . 

21 

66 

13 

Veal,  Leg,  medium  fat, 

E.P  

2J 

62 

50 

Two  slices  of  broiled  bacon  weigh  about  i  oz. 
One  serving  of  meat  weighs  about  3-4  oz. 


Milk 

Buttermilk     .... 

9i 

280 

30 

Condensed,  sweetened  . 

1 

31 

11 

Condensed, 

unsweetened     .     . 

2 

59 

23 

Cream,  thin    .... 

11 

51 

5 

Cream,  thick       .     .     .. 

1 

26 

2 

Skimmed    ..... 

9* 

273 

37 

Whey    

131 

375 

15 

Whole    . 

•LKJ  I 

5 

145 

19 

One  cup  (£  pint)  of  milk  weighs  about  8?  oz. 

One  cup  of  cream  weighs  about  8  oz. 

One  tablespoon  of  whipped  cream  weighs  about 


Molasses  (see  Sweets) 
Muffins  (see  Biscuits) 
Nuts 

Almonds,  shelled 
Butternuts,  E.P.      , 
Chestnuts,  E.P. 


oz. 


i 

15 

13 

i 

15 

17 

M 

41 

10 

310 


FOOD  STUDY 


WEIGHT  OF  IOO-CALORIE 

APPROXIMATE 

NAME  OP  FOOD 

PORTION 

NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

PROTEIN 

Nuts 

Cocoanut,  fresh       .     . 

I 

17 

4 

Cocoanut,  prepared 

i 

15 

4 

Peanuts,  E.P.      ... 

f 

18 

19 

Walnuts,       California, 

E.P. 

* 

14 

10 

One  cup  of  shelled  nuts  weighs  about  5-5  £  oz. 

Oil,  Olive      .....  |            \        I  11 
One  tablespoon  of  oil  weighs  about  J  oz. 

Pies  (see  Sweets) 

Puddings  (see  Sweets) 

Rolls  (see  Biscuits) 

Soups,  canned 

Celery,  Cream  of     .     .  6£  187 

Corn,  Cream  of  ...  3£  102 

Pea,  Cream  of     ...  7  196 

Tomato 9  225 

Vegetable 26  735 

Sweets 

Cake,  Chocolate  layer .  1  28 

Cake,  Frosted     ...  1  27 

Cake,  Fruit    ....  1  27 

Cake,  Gingerbread .     .  1  27 

Cake,  Sponge      ...  1  25 

Chocolate       ....              %  16 

Cocoa |  20 

Doughnuts     ....              |  23 

Fig  bars 1  28 

Gingersnaps   ....              £  25 

Honey  ......  1  31 

Macaroons      ....  1  24 

Marmalade,  Orange     .  1  29 

Molasses 1J  35 

Pie,  Apple      ....  1J  37 

Pie,  Custard  ....  2  56 

Pie,  Lemon     ....  \\  39 

Pie,  Mince      ....  If  35 

Pie,  Squash    ....  2  56 


APPENDIX 


311 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OF  IOO-CALORIE 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.)l 

Grams 

Sweets 
Pudding,  Apple  Tapioca 
Pudding,  Cornstarch    . 
Pudding,  Lemon  Jelly  . 
Pudding,  Rice     .     .     . 
Sugrar 

3 
li 

3 
2 
1 
1 

1 

82 
45 
78 
51 
25 
23 
23 

1 

12 
5 
12 
0 
0 
6 

Syrup,  Maple      . 
Vanilla  Wafers    . 

One  square  of  chocolate  weighs  about  1  oz. 
One  tbsp.  of  cocoa  weighs  about  i  oz. 
One  medium-sized  doughnut  weighs  about  1 
One  tbsp.  of  honey  weighs  about  1  oz. 
One  cup  of  molasses  weighs  about  11  oz. 
One  serving  of  pie  weighs  about  5£  oz. 
One  lump  of  sugar  weighs  about  ?  oz. 
One  tbsp.  of  sugar  weighs  about  £  oz. 
One  cup  of  sugar  weighs  about  7|  oz. 
One  cup  of  maple  syrup  weighs  about  11  oz. 


oz. 


Vegetables 

Asparagus,  fresh,  E.P. 

16 

450 

33 

Asparagus,     cooked, 

E.P  

71 

213 

18 

Beans,  baked,  canned 

*  2 

21 

78 

21 

Beans,  dried  .... 

1 

29 

26 

Beans,  Lima,  canned    . 

4* 

130 

21 

Beans,  String,  canned 

171 

488 

22 

Beans,  String,  fresh 

8£ 

241 

22 

Cabbage,  E.P.     . 

m 

317 

20 

Carrots,  E.P.       .     .     . 

71 

221 

10 

Cauliflower,  E.P.     .     . 

11* 

328 

24 

Celery,  E.P  

19 

540 

24 

Corn,  canned       .     •     * 

3* 

102 

12 

Corn,  green,  E.P.     .     . 

3* 

99 

12 

Cucumbers               ,     , 

20i 

575 

18 

Egg  plant  

14J 

358 

17 

Lettuce      ..... 

18| 

524 

25 

Mushrooms    .     . 

71 

223 

31 

Onions        ..... 

n 

205 

13 

Parsnips     ..... 

5* 

154 

10 

312 


FOOD   STUDY 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

WEIGHT  OF  IOO-CALORIE 
PORTION 

APPROXIMATE 
NUMBER  OF 
CALORIES  FROM 
PROTEIN 

Oz.  (approx.) 

Grams 

Vegetables 
Peas,  canned  .     .    .    . 
Peas,  fresh      .... 
Potatoes,  Chips       .     . 
Potatoes,  Sweet,  E.P. 
Potatoes,  White,  E.P. 
Pumpkins,  E.P.  .     .     . 
Radishes,  E.P.    .     .     . 

61 
3| 

i 

21 

4* 
13| 
12 
14f 
7! 
15* 
15i 
9 

181 
100 
17 
81 
120 
389 
341 
416 
217 
439 
443 
254 

26 
28 
5 
6 
11 
16 
18 
35 
12 
16 
21 
13 

Spinach      
Squash,  E.P  
Tomatoes,  fresh       .     . 
Tomatoes,  canned   .     . 
Turnips,  E.P.      .     .     , 

One-half  pint  of  baked  beans  weighs  about  7j  oz. 

One  serving  of  most  vegetables  weighs  about  three  to  four 

ounces. 
One  serving  of  celery,  lettuce,  or  radishes  weighs  about 

one  ounoe. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  LABORATORY  LESSONS 

I.  Dried  fruit.    Baked  bananas.    Baked  apples. 

II.  Peach  butter.     Canned  tomatoes. 

III.  Apple  and  mint  jelly. 

IV.  Chili  sauce.    Mustard  pickles. 

V.  Spiced  prunes.    Watermelon-rind  pickle. 

VI.  Potatoes  in  the  half  shell. 

VII.  Marguerite  salad.     Shirred  eggs. 

VIII.  Scrambled  eggs  with  or  without  milk. 

IX.  Date  tapioca.    Chocolate  tapioca. 

X.  Turkish  Pilaf .    Compote  of  rice  and  pears. 

XI.  Tapioca  cream.     Brown-bread  brewis. 

XII.  Iced  tea.     Cinnamon  crackers. 

XIII.  Fruit  punch.     Percolated  and  drip  coffee. 

XIV.  Iced  cocoa  or  cocoa  shake. 
XV.  Frappe.    Apricot  ice. 

XXIV.  Potatoes  au  gratin.    Creamed  eggs. 

XXV.  Rice  croquettes.    Egg  cutlets. 

XXVI.  Baked  macaroni  and  cheese. 

XXVII.  Creamed  celery. 

XXIX.  Cauliflower. 

XXX.  Brussels  sprouts.    Kale. 

XXXIII.  Cannelon  of  beef,  or  beef  loaf. 

XXXIV.  Breaded  chops.    Franconia  potatoes. 
XXXV.  Swiss  steak.    Braised  beef. 

XXXVII.  Noodles.    Beef  tea. 

313 


314 


FOOD  STUDY 


XXXVIII.     Irish     moss.      Agar-agar.      Jellied     meat. 

Double  mold. 
XLI.     Fried    smelts.     Creamed    codfish.     Finnan 

haddie.     Planked  fish. 
XLII.     Scalloped  oysters.    Panned  oysters.    Oysters 

with  bacon. 

XLIV.     Cream  puffs.    Fruit  puffs. 
XLV.     Celery  fritters.    Timbale  cases. 
XLVI.    Waffles.     Johnny  cake. 
XLVII.    Hot-water  sponge  cake.    Angel  cake. 
XLVIII.    Date  muffins.    Sally  Lunn.    Boston  brown 

bread. 
XLIX.     Chocolate  cake.    White  cake.    Gold  cake. 

Boiled  frosting. 

L.    Dutch  apple  cake.     Cinnamon  roly-poly. 
LI.    Hermits,  or  other  drop  cookies. 
LII.    Raisin  bread.    Nut  bread.    Baking-powder 

nut  bread. 

LIII.    Finger  rolls.    Swedish  tea  ring,  etc. 
LIV.     Custard  pie.     Lemon  cream  pie.    Fruit  tarts. 
LV.    Raised  doughnuts.    Sour-milk  doughnuts. 
LVL    Mousse.    Parfait. 
LVII.     Frozen  pudding.     Spanish  cream. 
LIX.    Cottage     cheese     and     walnut     sandwich. 

Maids  of  Honor. 

LX.    Cheese     balls.      Cheese     fondu.      Cheese 
straws. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


ACETYLENE,  102. 
Agar-agar,  193. 
Albumin,  183,  274. 

in  meat,  170. 
Alcohol,  grain,  102,  246,  250. 

wood,  102. 
Apple,  coddled,  2. 

fritters,  220. 

jelly,  13. 

sauce,  2. 

tapioca,  57. 

BABY-FEEDING,  274. 
Bacon,  broiled,  119. 

fat,  261. 
Bacteria,  21-24,  25-29,  247,  248. 

in  meat,  181,  182. 

in  milk,  266,  270-271,  275. 
Baking,  219. 

Baking  powder,  226-229,  237- 
239. 

and  soda,  229. 
Baking  powder  biscuit,  237-239, 

253. 
Beef,  171. 

broth,  189. 

chipped,  130. 

cuts  of,  177. 

roast,  175. 

steak,  176. 

stew,  180. 

tea,  189-191. 


Bread,  244-253. 

bakers',  253. 

baking,  250. 

composition  of,  251. 

digestibility  of,  252. 

graham,  250. 

kneading  of,  245,  246-247. 

mixing,  245-248. 

oatmeal,  250. 

score  card  for,  252. 

spoon  bread,  183. 
Breakfast  foods,  buying,  55. 

classification  of,  54. 

cooking  of,  51,  55. 

cost,  54,  62-63. 

crisping  of,  62. 
Breakfasts,  67,  122. 
Butter,  260,  261,  262-266. 

butterine,  265. 

digestibility  of,  261. 

in  cake,  236. 

making,  263. 

oleomargarine,  265. 

rancidity,  264-265. 
Butterine,  265. 
Buttermilk,  265-266. 

CAKE,  227,  233,  235-236,  255. 

making,  235-236,  255. 

plain,  233. 

sponge  cake,  227. 
Calories,  53,  153-157,  304-312. 


317 


318 


INDEX 


Candies,  162-163. 
Canning,  7,  8,  12. 
Carbohydrates,  163-167. 

caloric  value,  154. 

See  also  CELLULOSE,  PECTIN, 

STARCH,  SUGARS. 
Carrots,  creamed,  139. 
Casein,  274. 
Cellulose,  15,  34,  37,  63-64,  133, 

278. 
Cereals : 

composition  of,  52,  54. 

corn  meal,  232. 

corn  pudding,  176. 

Indian  pudding,  62. 

mineral  elements  in,  299. 

mush,  fried,  123. 

rice,  boiled  and  steamed,  57. 

rice  pudding,  62. 

spoon  bread,  183. 

See  also  BREAKFAST  FOODS. 
Cheese,  composition  of,  282. 

cottage  cheese,  277. 

digestibility  of,  284. 

effect  of  extreme  heat  on,  281. 

manufacture,  283. 

mineral  elements  in,  299. 

pudding,  281. 

souffle,  132. 

wafers,  79. 

Welsh  rabbit,  281. 
Chicken,  198-201. 
Children,  food  for,  277-280. 

foods  bad  for,  277-279. 

food    requirements   for,    280, 
301. 

habits  of  drinking,  280. 

habits  of  eating,  279. 
Chocolate,  84-85,  236. 

sauce,  135. 
,Coal,  100. 


Cocoa,  chocolate  and,  83-85. 

composition  of,  85. 

effects  of,  85. 

for  children,  277. 

making,  83. 
Coffee,  79-82. 

buying,  81. 

composition  of,  81. 

effects  of,  81-82. 

for  children,  277. 

making,  79. 
Combustion,  98-103. 
Condiments,  86-89,  278. 
Cookies,  gingersnaps,  241. 

oatmeal,  83. 

sugar,  241. 

See  also  WAFERS. 
Cornstarch,     manufacture     of, 
136-138. 

mold,  135. 

thickening  power  of,  135. 
Cream,  262. 

whipped  cream  pudding,  263. 
Cream  soups,  142,  261. 
Croquettes,  132. 
Croutons,  142. 
Cucumber  pickles,  20. 
Custard,  baked,  267. 

boiled,  267. 

frozen,  268. 

junket,  277. 

DINING  ROOM,  214-216, 287-292. 
Dinners,  194,  213. 
Doughnuts,  258. 
Drafts,  104-107. 
Dumplings,  180. 

EGGS,  47-50. 
boiled,  40-41. 
buying,  48. 


INDEX 


319 


Eggs  —  Continued 

composition   of,   47-48,   262, 
282. 

cooking   temperature   of   egg 
white,  40. 

cost,  48. 

digestibility,  49-50. 

fat  in,  262. 

freshness,  39,  48. 

milk  and,  267. 

mineral  elements  in,  299. 

omelets,  122-123. 

poached,  46-47. 

preservation  of,  49. 

scrambled,  115. 

solubility  of  egg  white,  46. 

stuffed,  41. 

tests  for  freshness  of,  39. 
Electricity,  103. 
Energy,  153,  154. 

total  daily  requirements,  154- 

155,  280,  297-299,  301. 
Extractions,  170. 
Extracts,  89. 

FAT,  caloric  value,  154. 

clarification  of,  258. 

composition  of  foods  rich  in, 
259. 

cost,  261. 

digestibility  of,  260,  261,  274. 

emulsions  of,  285. 

in  butter,  262-266. 

in  eggs,  262. 

in  meat,  170. 

in  milk,  268,  270,  274. 

in  pastry,  254,  256. 
Fireless  cookers,  116-117,  149. 
Fish,  baked,  202. 

boiled,  with  egg  sauce,  203. 

buying,  205-206. 


chowder,  208. 

composition  of,  203-205. 

croquettes,  132. 

digestibility,  206. 

effect    of    different   ways    of 
boiling,  203. 

scalloped,  203. 
Flies,  24. 

Flour,  bread,  130-131,  133-134, 
234-235. 

composition  of,  133. 

kinds  of,  231-232. 

graham,  231. 

mixtures,  217-219. 

manufacture  of,  130-131, 133- 
134. 

pastry,  234-235,  255-256. 

rye,  232. 

weight  of,  231. 

white  wheat,  231-232. 
Food,  daily  amount  necessary, 
152-157,     280,    297,    299, 
301. 

composition  of,  155-157. 

cost  of,  157. 

for  children,  277-280,  301. 

fuel  value  of,  155-157,  304- 
312. 

lacking  in  mineral  elements, 
152. 

laxative  effect  of  food,  5,  64. 

mineral  elements  in,  152,  299. 

preservation,  20,  28,  29,  270. 
Freezing,  90-94. 

See  also  under  ICE,  ICE  CREAM, 

SHERBET. 

Fritters,  apple,  220. 
Frostings,  234. 
Fruit  peel,  candied,  95. 
Fruit,  buying,  3,  6. 

canning,  7,  8,  12. 


320 


INDEX 


Fruit  —  Continued 

composition  of,  3,  14-16. 

cooking  of,  2. 

cost  of,  3,  6. 

digestibility  of,  5. 

for  children,  278. 

laxative  effect  of,  5. 

mineral  elements  in,  5,  152, 
299. 

nutritive  value,  4,  5. 

pickling  of,  20,  25. 

spoiling  of,  1,  7,  8-12. 
Fuel  value  of  food.    See  FOOD, 

FUEL  VALUE   OF. 

Fuels,  98-103. 
acetylene,  102. 
alcohols,  102. 
coal,  100. 
gas,  101-102. 
gasolene,  102. 
in  body,  153. 
kerosene,  101. 

GARBAGE,  24. 

Gas,  101-102. 

Gas  stoves,  109-113,  117. 

Gasolene,  102. 

Gelatine,  191-194. 

Bavarian  cream,  192. 

from  meat  proteins,  170. 

in  soups,  189. 

Irish  moss,  194. 

jellied  prunes,  213. 

lemon  jelly,  192. 

snow  pudding,  192. 

Spanish  cream,  195. 

vegetable,  193-194. 
Gingerbread,  238,  261. 
Gingersnaps,  241. 
Gluten,  130-131,  185,  246-247. 
Greens,  cooking  of,  151. 


Griddlecakes,  sour  milk,  224. 
sweet  milk,  226-227. 

HEAT,  conduction  of,  115. 

convection  of,  115. 

radiation  of,  114. 
Height  and  weight,  300-303. 

of  boys,  302. 

of  children,  301. 

of  girls,  303. 

of  men,  300. 

of  women,  300. 
Hot-water  systems,  119-120. 
Hundred-calorie   portions,    157, 
304-312. 

ICE,  lemon,  91. 

Ice  cream,  frozen  custard,  268. 
Philadelphia,  263. 

JELLY,  covering,  17. 

apple,  13. 

grape,  13. 

making,  15,  19. 

principles  of  making,  15-18. 

prunes,  213-214. 

repeated  extractions  for,  17, 
19. 

storing,  18. 

sugar  in,  16,  19. 
Jellying,  tests  for,  13. 

KEROSENE,  101. 

Kitchen  arrangements,  287-292. 
Kitchen  ware,  selection  of,  120- 
121. 

LABORATORY   LESSONS,  supple- 
mentary, 313-314. 
Lamb,  172-173. 
Leavening,  ah*,  221,  256. 


INDEX 


321 


Leavening  —  Continued 

baking  powder,  226,  228-229. 

carbon  dioxide,  221. 

in  cake,  236. 

in  pastry,  256. 

principles  of,  220. 

soda,  222-225. 

water  vapor,  221,  256. 

yeast,  221,  240-243,  246,  247, 

248. 
Luncheon,  292. 

MACARONI,  131,  136. 
Marguerites,  95. 
Marshmallow  wafers,  74. 
Meals,  balanced,  293. 

See  also  MENU-MAKING. 
Meat,  beef,  171. 

beef,  chipped,  130. 

beef,  cuts  of,  177. 

beef,  mineral  elements  in,  299. 

beef,  roast,  175. 

beef  stew,  180. 

beefsteak,  176. 

beef  tea,  189-191. 

broth,  189. 

buying,  171. 

care  of,  174. 

chicken,  198-201. 

composition  of,  169-170. 

consumption  of,  181,  187. 

cooking  of,  175-176,  179-180. 

cuts  of,  171-174,  176-178. 

dangers  from,  181-182. 

digestibility  of,  201-202. 

extract,  189-191. 

for  children,  279. 

inspection,  181-182. 

in  the  dietary,  293-294. 

juice,  190. 

lamb,  172-173. 


left-overs,  183. 
left  from  soup,  191. 
meat  cakes,  168. 
mutton,  172-173. 
pork,  173. 
poultry,  200-201. 
soups,  188-191. 
structure,  168-170. 
veal,  171-172. 
Menu-making,  293. 
Meters,  gas,  111-112. 
Micro-organisms,   bacteria,   21- 

24,  181,  182,  247,  248,  270- 

271. 
conditions    favoring    growth, 

25-29. 

molds,  8-12,  25-29. 
yeasts,    21-24,    25-29,    221, 

240-243,    246,     247,    248, 

253. 

Milk,  acids  and,  272-275. 
boiling,  275. 
buttermilk,  265-266. 
certified,  271. 
composition  of,  268-269. 
dangers  from,  270-271. 
effect  of  heat  on  curd,  276. 
eggs  and,  267. 
fat  in,  274. 
for  children,  278. 
mineral    elements    in,    274- 

275,  299. 
pasteurized,  271. 
proteins  in,  274. 
sour,  uses  of,  277. 
souring  of,  275. 
value  in  diet,  275. 
Mineral  elements : 

acidity  and  alkalinity,  66. 
daily    requirement    of,    157, 

298-299. 


322 


INDEX 


Mineral  elements  —  Continued 

foods  lacking  in,  152. 

in  cereals,  299. 

in  cheese,  299. 

in  eggs,  299. 

in  foods,  152,  299. 

in  fruits,  5,  152,  299. 

in  milk,  274-275,  299. 

in  nuts,  299. 

in  potatoes,  37. 

in  vegetables,  146,  149,  152, 
299. 

in  water,  299. 

use  of,  in  body,  65. 
Molasses,  225. 
Molds,  8-12,  25-29. 
Muffins,  230. 
Mush,  fried,  123. 
Mutton,  172-173. 
Myosin,  170. 

NUTS,  composition  of,  184. 
mineral  elements  in,  299. 

OILS,  258-261. 
Oleomargarine,  265. 
Omelets,  122-123. 
Oysters,  207-212. 

composition  of,  209. 

cooking  of,  207. 

cultivation  of,  210-211. 

stew,  207. 

PASTRY,  254-256. 

digestibility  of,  256. 
Peaches,  sweet  pickled,  25. 

canned,  7. 
Peas,  creamed,  139. 
Pectin,  13,  15,  19-20. 
Pickles,  cucumber,  20. 

sweet  pickled  peaches,  25. 


Pies,  apple,  255. 
Pop-overs,  216-217,  221. 
Pork,  173. 
Potatoes,  boiled,  30-31. 

buying  of,  36. 

composition  of,  31,  33,  35. 

digestibility,  37. 

mashed,  31. 

mineral  elements  in,  34,  37. 

preparation  for  the  table,  36, 
37. 

salad,  119. 

scalloped,  98. 

stuffed,  104. 

sweet,  38. 
Poultry,  200-201. 
Preservatives,  20,  28-29,  270. 
Pressure  cooker,  41. 
Protein,  34,  152,  183-187. 

calorie  value,  154. 

daily  requirement,  155,  186- 
187,  298. 

in  meat,  170. 

in  milk,  274. 
Pudding,  cheese,  281. 

chocolate  bread,  108. 

corn  pudding,  176. 

Indian  pudding,  62. 

rice,  62. 

rice,  boiled,  57. 

whipped  cream,  263. 

RECEPTIONS,  95-97. 

Refrigerators,  117. 

Rice,  boiled  and  steamed,  57. 

Rice  pudding,  62. 

Rolls,  Parker  House,  249. 

SACCHARIN,  166. 
Salads,  287. 
potato,  119. 


INDEX 


323 


Salad  dressings,  boiled,  286. 

French,  151. 

mayonnaise,  285-286. 

sour  cream,  151. 
Sandwiches,  96. 
Sauce,  chocolate,  135. 

egg,  203. 

fat  in,  268. 

tomato,  136. 

white,  129,  132,  142. 
Serving,  195-198. 
Sherbet,  lemon,  91. 

lemon  milk,  273. 
Soda,  222-225. 

baking  powder  and,  229. 

cream  of  tartar  and,  229. 

molasses  and,  225. 

sour  milk  and,  189. 
Souffle,  cheese,  132. 
Soup,  beef  broth,  189. 

beef  tea,  189-191. 

chowder,  208. 

cream  of  celery,  142. 

cream  of  onion,  146. 

cream  of  potato,  142. 

cream  of  tomato,  273. 

gelatine  in,  189. 

principle  of  cream  soup,  142. 

split  pea,  195. 

tomato,  213. 
Sour  milk,  223-224,  229. 

effect  of  heat  on,  276. 

griddlecakes,  224. 
Sponge  cake,  227. 
Spoon  bread,  183. 
Starch,  56,  57-61,  64,  128-129. 

cooking  of,  59. 

cornstarch,  135. 

digestion  of,  59-60. 

effect  of  moist  heat  on,  139. 

manufacture  of,  57. 


mixing  with  liquids,  137. 

tapioca,  56. 
Stoves,  coal,  105-107. 

fireless  cookers,  116-117. 

gas,  109-113,  117. 
Sugar,  165-166,  278. 

beet,  160-161. 

candies,  162-163,  278. 

cane,  160-161. 

composition  of  foods  contain- 
ing sugar,  164. 

crystallization  of,  163. 

digestion  of,  161,  166. 

in  baby-feeding,  274,  278. 

in  cake,  236. 

in  milk,  274. 

manufacture  of,  160-161. 

stages  in  sugar  cooking,  162. 

test  for,  159. 
Syrup,  123. 

TABLE-MANNERS,  123-128. 
Table-setting,  67-72. 
Tapioca,  apple,  57. 
Tea,  black,  75,  77,  88. 

composition,  77. 

effects  of,  78,  81-88,  277. 

green,  74,  77,  88. 

making,  75,  77. 
Thermos  bottles,  117. 
Tomato,  sauce,  136. 

soup,  213. 

soup,  cream  of,  273. 

VEALS,  171-172. 
Vegetables,  beets,  159. 

buying,  147. 

cabbage,  scalloped,  142. 
.     canned,  140-141. 

carrots,  139. 

classification  of,  143-145. 


324 


INDEX 


Vegetables  —  Continued 

composition  of,  144. 

cooking,  146,  149,  158-159. 

corn  pudding,  176. 

for  children,  278. 

freshening,  147,  149-150. 

green  vegetables,  149-151. 

in  fireless  cooker,  149. 

lettuce,  150-151. 

mild  flavored,  158-159. 

mineral  elements  in,  146,  149, 
152,  299. 

onions,  scalloped,  142. 

peas,  creamed,  139. 

spinach,  151. 

squash,  158-159. 

strong  flavored,  146,  149. 

turnips,  creamed,  168. 
Vegetarianism,  186-187. 

WAFERS,  cheese,  79. 

Marguerites,  95. 

marshmallow,  74. 
Water,  30,  39,  41-45,  46,  152. 

classification  of,  4. 


drinking,  43-^4,  45,  280. 

hot-water  systems,  119-120. 

mineral  elements  in,  299. 

necessity  to  body,  42^3. 

relation  of  surface  to  evapo- 
ration, 51. 

safe,  for  drinking,  45. 

stages  in  boiling,  32. 

uses  in  cooking,  30,  39,  42,  46, 

51. 
Weight  and  height,  boys,  302. 

children,  301. 

girls,  303. 

men,  300. 

women,  300. 
Wheat,  130-131,  133. 

See  also  FLOUR. 
White  sauce,  medium,  129. 

thick,  132. 

thin,  142. 

YEAST,  21-24,  25-29,  221,  240- 

243,  246,  247,  248,  253. 
as  a  leavening  agent,  221. 
cakes,  241-242. 


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